Historical and Current Pertinent Social Issues in the Middle East

A number of noteworthy matters have been acknowledged in relation to the social aspect in the Middle East. However, they have been varied in the past and what is presented today. According to Baster and Subramanian (1965), in 1965, the significant issues in the Middle East included the relationship between social and economic factors to bring about development. This was principally done through the identification of the economic and social indicators in eight countries. The study revealed that in comparison to economic levels in the 1950s, high social levels had more rapid growth in the subsequent years.

On the other hand, Cordesman, Yarosh, and Coughlin-Schulte (2013) show that the most relevant issues in the current Middle East areas are the political dynamics that greatly determine the level of stability and unrest within the Middle Eastern areas. The violence and political dynamics have dominated the course of most events in the region leading to the current episodes of violence and lack of stability. They are a threat to the broader economic, demographic, and security aspects. Thus, it is an indication that there has been a great shift in the social issues in the Middle East.

These issues have been shown to be greatly influenced by adult education. Through adult education, the text by Baster and Subramanian (1965) can be influenced by the fact that adults will realize the need for proper and positive social relationships in enhancing the economic aspects. Adult education helps people to handle their political activities in a way that does not result in conflicts and hence instability in the Middle Eastern region.

References

Baster, N., & Subramanian, M. (1965). Aspects of Social and Economic Growth: A Pilot    Statistical Study. Retrieved 3 April 2014 from http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/search/AE53C1FAB1EDB9E5C1257C1500534EA3?OpenDocument

Cordesman, H. A., Yarosh, S. N., & Coughlin-Schulte, C. (2013). The Underlying Causes            of Stability and Unrest in the Middle East and North Africa: An Analytic Survey.      Retrieved 3 April 2014 from http://csis.org/publication/underlying-causes-stability-and-unrest-middle-east-and-north-africa-analytic-survey-0

High Stakes Testing In Education

A high-stakes test has critical outcomes for the individual taking the test. Passing has significant advantage, for example, a secondary school diploma, a grant, or a permit to practice a career. Failing has imperative detriments, for example, being compelled to take remedial lessons until one passes the test , not being permitted to drive a car, or not having the ability to secure employment.

The utilization and abuse of high-stakes tests is a dubious subject in the education system, particularly in the US where they have ended up popular lately, utilized to assess learners as well as in endeavors to build educator responsibility (Sutton & Seifert, 2009). High stakes are not an attribute for the test itself, instead of the outcomes put on the result. For instance, regardless of what test is utilized, a medicinal certification test must be passed in order to practice medicine.

The observation of the stakes may differ. For instance, school learners who want to skip an initial level course are frequently offered exams to check whether they have mastered the material and might be passed to the next level. The ability to pass the exam can diminish educational expenses and time used at college. A person who is on edge to have these gains may see the test as a high-stakes. Another learner who puts no emphasis on the result, as far as he is in a class suitable to his ability level, may think about a similar test as a low-stakes test.

Educational module narrowing, nonetheless, lessens numerous learners’ opportunities of being thought capable in school and brings about a confinement in the innovative and pleasant exercises applied by educators and learners. The tests normally utilized with narrower curricula likewise seem to limit thinking abilities. Furthermore, a reaction to high stakes situations can simply retard the advancement of accomplishment in later grades as a capacity of the limitations on learning in prior grades.

High-stakes testing has clearly impeded the development or diminished accomplishment in the USA in spite of the weight it induces and the attention that it essentially gets from teachers. The accomplishment gap between the rich and poor, Hispanics and Anglos, blacks and whites all are tricky to delete because the gap has a little to do with whatever happens in schools, and a ton to do with cultural and social elements that influence the performance of learners (Berliner, 2005). Federal authorities in the last US administration continue looking for remedies that might be discharged by school management and educators to influence a cure for low accomplishment among poor students, English dialect learners and numerous minorities. It is obviously a squandered endeavor if the significant cause for school issues stems from social situations outside the schools.

Measuring how well learners study is an imperative building element at the present time empowering and enhancing the schools. Tests, alongside scholar evaluations and instructor assessments, can give basic measures of learners’ abilities, knowledge, and capacities. Hence, tests ought to be part of a framework in which expansive and fair access to learning chances and progression is given to all people. Tests, when used appropriately, become sound and objective approaches to measure the performance of the learners. However, when test outcomes are used improperly or as a solitary performance measure, they can have unintended adverse results.

Some public authorities and learning institutions are progressively calling for the utilization of tests to make high-stakes choices, for example, whether a learner will proceed to the next evaluation level or get a diploma. School authorities utilizing such tests must guarantee that learners are tested on an educational program they have had a reasonable chance to learn, such that certain subgroups of learners like racial and ethnic minority learners or people with inefficiencies or poor English speakers are not deliberately burdened by the test. Besides, high-stakes choices ought not to be made on the premise of a solitary test score, because a solitary test can just give a “preview” of learner accomplishment and may not precisely reflect a whole year’s student performance advancement and accomplishment.

Proper improvement and utilization of high stakes testing in education are vital. Decency in testing starts when tests are being created. Test engineers ought to provide particular data about the potential limits of the test to those who use their tests, including circumstances in which the application of the test scores might be wrong. A test that has been accepted just for diagnosing qualities and shortcomings of individual learners ought not to be utilized in assessing the nature of a school. Moreover, those utilizing a specific test ought to have gratefulness for how the performance of the test of a few students -learners with an inability or those with poor English-speaking capability, for instance, needs to be deciphered.

High-stakes tests uncover that a few examinees may not have a clue about the needed resources, or do not have the fundamental aptitudes. While failing these individuals may have numerous advantages, the outcomes of recurrent disappointment could be detrimental for a person. An individual who fails a technical driving exam will not have the capacity to drive a car lawfully, which implies they cannot drive a car to work and might lose their employment if other transportation choices are not accessible. The individual may endure social shame when his acquaintances realize that his absence of expertise brought about misfortune of his driving license. In the setting of secondary school exit exams, inadequately performing schools have formally rejected high-stakes testing following low test outcomes, which publicly and accurately uncovered the locale’s disappointments, ended up being politically humiliating, and condemned high-stakes tests for recognizing learners who fail to offer the required information (Weinkopf, 2002).

References

Berliner, D. (2005). Our impoverished view of educational reform. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 949–995.

Sutton, R., & Seifert, K. (2009). Educational Psychology, 2^nd Edition. “Chapter 1: The Changing Teaching Profession and You.” p 14. The Saylor Foundation.

Weinkopf, C. (2002). Blame the test: LAUSD denies responsibility for low scores. Daily News. Retrieved on 25 March 2014 from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/BLAME+THE+TEST+LAUSD+DENIES+RESPONSIBILITY+FOR+LOW+SCORES-a086659557

No Child Left Behind Law

Dear Senator,

The No Child Left behind Law is of a major concern to me since my school is a Title 1. The law suggests that Title 1 schools should make game plans for children to go to schools that are passing. Passing schools are those making their Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) objectives. This prerequisite still applies regardless of the possibility that it means changing to a school in an alternate region. NCLB says that all students in a fizzling school can decide to go to a passing school. In the event that there is no other passing school in your locality, you may pick a school in an alternate region.

I am concerned with the law because punishing schools serving students with the minimum arrangement and the most negative outside impacts for not having attained certain grades on any scale snubs the casualties of different isolation. Additionally, it energizes their educators and heads to leave significantly faster than they may regularly do. Yet, close or radically changing NCLB will not make our schools’ racial favoritism go away or bring about positive race relations in schools and groups. Indeed, numerous causal state strategies might stay set up. We require distinctive and positive strategies that address our racial issues, arrangements that appreciate and utilize the abilities of our educators. Unfortunately, such strategies cannot be about additional cash, nor if they lose NCLB’s great parts, for example, acquiring highly important information on all aggregations inside all schools.

Treating all children the same sounds great, yet it is exceptionally difficult to accomplish. Think about your children. How compelling might you think a school where all the instructors had social and racial foundations not quite the same as you; a school where teachers that comprehend your children’s experiences and talents are few? Where your youngsters are confronted with occurrences of badgering, preference, error, and danger? Where there is no demonstration about the positive commitments of your race or society to the basic culture? Where the schools latently acknowledge different manifestations of in-school isolation? Where your kids wind up in deadlock classes or specialized curriculum? Suppose it is possible that your children’s school just taught classes in a dialect they could not comprehend and they had no educators to converse with in their tongue. I deduce that just about any guardian confronting such a circumstance might think, to the point that positive approaches to address these issues were critically imperative. Thus, they are, regardless of whose youngsters are included.

I think each school needs the best for their students. I surmise that there are some that are stronger than others, to the extent to which performance is concerned. Nevertheless, I think with some aid from the U.S. Office [of Education] and different organizations, they could be trusted to try what is best for all children.

I appreciate your efforts and endeavors to support our education system. However, though this may not be in line with point of view, kindly present my opinion in the house for debate. Also, respond on your current position on the issue.

Much thanks to you for your thought of my perspective on this matter. I accept it is a critical issue, and might want to see the enactment amended to guarantee powerful instructive administrations for the people included. Your quick response is highly appreciated.

Sincerely,

Your name,

Address

Phone Number

Email Address

Cloud Application in Learning Institutions

A restatement of the instructional problem

As mentioned in the previous discussions, educational resource shortage in rural schools was highlighted as one of the challenges in academics. Rural high schools, according to Sundeen &Sundeen (2013) lack technological advanced resources. Students living in rural homes are more exposed to higher levels of poverty and this makes it even harder for them to acquire learning materials in class, hence the need for equal distribution of funds by the government officials to foster learning (Sundeen&Sundden, 2013). In addition, there is lower enrolment of students in rural high schools due to diseconomies of scale, resulting to higher fixed costs for the high school rural students. Cloud computing was the solution suggested to eradicate the academic challenge. In this context, cloud computing will be analyzed in details. As per earlier definition, cloud computing is the capability to access a variety of learning materials, software and hardware. Quite often, the term cloud is generally used as a metaphor to insinuate the internet (Ercan, 2010). Through the usage of cloud computing technology, both students and teachers benefit significantly; but just how exactly is this technology used by students?

Usage of suggested solution

Gone are the days when students used to work with pens and notebooks in lecture halls. Advanced technology has yielded several practical innovations making life simpler for everyone, including students. With cloud, students only need to switch on their laptops and are saved from the stressful world in which they used to cram their assignments on pen-drives and transfer document on computers, and  computer systems nowadays don’t require the regular backups. With cloud computing as an instructional resource, every little detail learned in class can now be saved virtually on any given cloud website (Ercan, 2010). Students can also utilize cloud as a photocopier. The photocopier paper can be left to relax on cloud, and connect it to the internet only to be printed later when the student needs a hard copy. Evernote is a cloud solution designed to store class notes, in which data can be restructured and can be effortlessly retrieved from anywhere (Ercan, 2010).

Why the suggested solution?

Based on this research, I personally selected cloud-computing solution to tackle the quench of educational resources deficit since there is urgent need of advanced learning in our evolving world. Most students prefer keying in data in a laptop since it is much easier, tidier and faster than using a pen and paper. Students are also enlightened on the various applicable options in cloud computing at their exposure. Additionally, there is no doubt that higher learning can at times be challenging, but cloud offers countless approaches for learners to be more efficient at schools. Cloud also has line-up services site such as drop box, which renders educational services to college group mates and is also applicable in distance learning (Ercan, 2010).

Teacher and learner interviews

In an attempt to satisfactory, complete this assignment I interviewed Alfred, a 12^th grade student in Young Achievers high school. Alfred expressed his views stating that he is very much comfortable with cloud innovation. He adds that learning has not only been made easier and better, but also fun. To him, learning now is like going to a hyper-supermarket and getting everything under the same roof since he can store all subjects he is pursuing in the same laptop. Samantha, who is Alfred’s teacher, was also interviewed for the purpose of this assignment. Upon being asked what she thinks about the advanced technology in schools, she says that the feeling is mutual. A lot of learning time is saved with cloud technology, giving way to new syllabus. Students perceive and internalize information differently and so with the use of cloud, students can turn back to line-up services to fully understand the topic.

 How similar technologies have been used in similar learning environments, and providing a critical analysis on research on similar learning environments

Similar cloud computing technologies have been used to address learning and instructional needs for students in the in low income and resource constrained environment. Rao, Sasidhar, & Kumar (2010) explored the application of cloud computing as an effective instructional tool in their proposed study. The proposed cloud computing technology was designed to provide cloud-computing services through mobile- learning. Their proposed cloud computing instructional technology is developed to support  all kinds of users by providing various tools such as software, hardware , storage and infrastructure in an efficient manner so that the users are neither limited in terms of service delivery and the amount of payments for the particular services

The cloud computing technology proposed by Rao, Sasidhar, & Kumar (2010) was developed to incorporate the cloud model and the client model, which facilitates its implementation. The cloud model makes use of the various tools such as device control, load control and memory control. The system also contains relevant organizing units with the necessary resources such as networks and high bandwidth support. In addition to this, the system makes use of security constraints with filters and firewall to provide better data maintenance with adequate methodologies to ensure data backup. The cloud model process enhances data manipulation with load control. It has high authentication and authorization aimed towards ensuring high data and information security.

According to Rao, Sasidhar, & Kumar (2010) the client model has several applications, which make it possible to distribute resources to the various end-users within the education system. The client model is designed to check for registration and validity of the users by providing login details in order to access and share information stored in the cloud. The client model is implemented through the mobile-learning system. Using this system, information is stored in shared resources where learners can access free of cost. Users are able to register and get login credentials on the web or download the mobile-learning system application using their mobile phones. The various learning resources are in lecture formats, visual and audio. Learners can access these resources, read them and then engage in self-assessment. The results analysis is provided to learners to evaluate their strength and weakness.

Ercan (2010) observes that the proposed cloud computing technology can be a very cost effective instructional design tool in educational environments. This is mainly because it is adoptable, scalable and uses a wide range of virtual resources stored on the internet. The cloud computing technology described above is thus a suitable alternative to rural schools with budget limitations, which cannot afford to invest in large computers and network devices. Both local high school and universities can encourage their students to take advantage of these cloud-computing resources to perform their business and class assignments. Similarly, a study by Nasr & Shimaa (2012) observes that cloud computing can be an effective instructional technology for development of e-learning systems. The findings of this study indicate that cloud computing is a relevant instructional technology in institutions of schools since it provides room for information sharing, research, faculty and learners. The study however notes that there is a need for the designers to improve the infrastructure of such technologies to enhance computation and storage resources to accommodate huge and complex data. However, the various cloud computing instructional designs come with associated difficulties and challenges which may render them as ineffective instructional tools. A study by Vouk (2008) examines some of the challenges and issues associated with the use of cloud computing technology. Firstly, security is likely to be the major concern for the various cloud-computing technologies. End-users to cloud computing technologies face the risks of loosing their data, processes and software incase of security breaches. Secondly, there is the challenge of gathering provenance data and information in a seamless and standardized way in order to minimize costs. Thirdly, it may be difficult to store information on the cloud in order to allow for future access. Fourthly, presenting information to the end-users in a logical way may prove to be another challenge. Fifthly, image optimization, portability and format may be another issue that is likely to affect the efficacy of the cloud computing technology.

A pitch as to why one would invest in the instructional solution

The proposed instructional solution proposed in this study offers the following advantages for education institutions with budgetary constraints:

• The proposed cloud computing technology will lead to reduced costs since schools will not be forced to use huge capital investments in computers.
• The proposed technology will improve performance of students since learning takes place seamlessly and anywhere while the students are roaming on the internet.
• The proposed technology will lead to reduced software costs, as all students will share resources.
• Cloud computing will allow automatic software updates to ensure that only the latest software is used.
• With cloud computing, there will be increased document compatibility.
• Cloud computing allow students and instructors to access information across the various geographical divide.

References

Ercan, T. (2010). Effective use of cloud computing in educational institutions. Procedia-Social `  and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2): 938–942

Nasr, M.M. &Shimaa,O.(2012). A proposed smart E-learning system using cloud computing `       services:PaaS, IaaS and Web 3.0. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in `   Learning, 7(3) (abstract).

Rao, N.M., Sasidhar, C. & Kumar, V.S. (2010). Cloud computing through mobile learning. India

Sundeen, T. H, &Sundeen, D. M. (2013). Instructional technology for rural schools: Access and               acquisition. Rural special education quarterly, 32(2), 8-14.

Vouk, M.A.(2008). Cloud computing –issues, research and implementations. Journal of `  computing and information technology –CIT16 (4):235-246. DOI:10.2498/cit.1001391

Data Saturation and Sample Size and its Limitation on Qualitative Research

            Education research is primarily qualitative. This is due to the fact that the data to be studied is already available from secondary sources of information. In qualitative research, a small size is normally chosen compared to quantitative research which factors in large sample sizes from the data is collected. Another primary problem that arises in qualitative research is that of data saturation. The issue of data saturation comes up rampantly in PhD theses. Data saturation refers to a situation where the researcher can no longer hear or see new information from the research that he or she is carrying on. There are various factors that have been put forward to date that lead to clues which may explain the limitations due to the occurrences of data saturation and sample sizes. This paper will analyse and discuss data saturation and sample size as well as the limitations in qualitative research with respect to the PhD research paper on Education.

            This paper aims to develop a thesis on the ability of training children who are born with autism and are living with it; using virtual reality technology. Data has to be collected first and foremost on the number of children that live autism from the sample population. Then from the children population, the study will consider a sample that will be for the assessment training. Qualitative research is normally labour intensive and time consuming hence the need for sampling. According to the recommendations made on sampling while using the qualitative research methodology, the smallest acceptable sample should be fifteen. The sample size to be considered has to be small. This is due to the fact that in choosing a very large data sample it can be quite repetitive and superfluous hence leading to research results that are highly inaccurate and unreliable. However, there are various disadvantages or limitations that normally arise during sampling with respect to the size of the sample. Besides size, the sample relies on other factors namely homogeneity and convenience.

There are a number of limitations associated with a small sample size. From a given sample size, tests that are based on the statistics should yield traits that exist truly in the population of the statistic. This is what is referred to as the statistical power. There exists a correlation between the sample size and the statistical power. A decline in the size of the sample leads to a decline in the statistical power. This may yield unreliable results contrary to what is sought after by the researchers. Another limitation is referred to as Type II Error which represents a “false negative”, that is, the result of a given statistic is not true. There is a correlation between sample size and type II error. When the sample sizes it too small, the type II error increases commensurately. The limitation of significance also emerges. Significance is whereby the difference is relatively large for it to matter. Larger samples can detect significant differences between statistical values compared to smaller samples hence they are preferred. The sample population must at times be subdivided and tested in scenarios or conditions that are different which may lead to a severe problem in the distribution of data.

            Several factors that lead to data saturation can be advanced. They include the scope of study, the nature of the topic under research, the quality of data that has been collected, the and the study design. Furthermore, the problem may be exacerbated by the use of data that is shadowed. The heterogeneity of the population and the availability of a budget and resources are other factors that may take centre stage. Data saturation is when data begins to be repetitive during data collection and no new information is presented; and responses begin to overlap (Bogdan &Biklen, 2007). Only five teachers participated in the study limiting the opportunity to reach data saturation. Although data saturation was not met, the study sample was sufficient because the collected data presented a sufficient amount of information displaying the benefits of VR as an intervention tool.

References

Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories and methods (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon

Giuffrida, M. A. (2014). Type II error and statistical power in reports of small animal clinical

trials. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244(9), 1075-1080.

Horvath, S. (2011).Association Measures and Statistical Significance Measures. In Weighted

Network Analysis (pp. 249-277). Springer New York.

Mason, M. (2010, August). Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative

interviews. In Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social

Research (Vol. 11, No. 3).

Murphy, K. R., Myors, B., &Wolach, A. (2014).Statistical power analysis: A simple and

general model for traditional and modern hypothesis tests. Routledge.

Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

O’Reilly, M., & Parker, N. (2012). ‘Unsatisfactory Saturation’: a critical exploration of the

notion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 1468794112446106.

Suri, H. (2011). Purposeful sampling in qualitative research synthesis.Qualitative Research

Journal, 11(2), 63-75.

Importance of Play in Education

The article has been paraphrased from the article “Acknowledging Learning Through Play in Primary Grades” pg 146-147

Importance of Play in Education

There are three significant importance of play; cognitive, social and physical.

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive skills are the ability to understand a given concept or idea through experience. Better understanding of facts requires an interactive engagement in the learning process; (Brooks & Brooks, 1993).This can be done by changing the classroom environment to be more accommodating. Teachers can make the class room environment playful thereby gives children opportunity to be able to make choices on their own and enjoy learning. The freedom of choices makes children have confidence. While playing children make certain decisions and therefore experience the effect their actions have. Through this, they learn from their actions. Children that are usually directed on what to do always miss out on the chance of bearing consequences for their own actions thus will not learn to control their actions. On the other hand, children that are left to make their own choices have an upper hand to make wise choices. Theorist like Dewey, Vygotsky and Piaget believed in interactive learning to nature cognitive skills (Mooney, 2000).During plays, children build their understanding of concepts as they share ideas, select activities and find solutions to problems.

Play is an important avenue of having child’s literacy skills put into practice hence develops language literacy. Learning begins in the use of language and listening. As children play, they have better understanding of language and its usefulness in interactions with people in their environment. During a play, children not only develop oral skills in a given language but also learn how to read and write it since at the end of primary age they are expected to be fluent in speaking and writing. Children’s involvement in plays gives them an opportunity to hear and practice new vocabularies therefore have better understanding of how language works. Primary teachers should place literacy materials such as signs to read, flannel boards, word spelling magnetic letters and tape players that record children’s own stories. These kinds of plays also help to develop children’s language skills.

Piaget believed in children interacting with materials around their environment in order to understand concepts (Mooney, 2000).Interactive learning builds knowledge about the world around children such as certain materials can assist in understanding certain concepts in mathematics and science. Puzzles aid in understanding spatial concepts, pattern blocks helps making geometric shapes while magnetic exploration allows children to understand magnetic forces and discover the difference between metals and non metals. These materials therefore enable children have better understanding of various mathematical and scientific concepts that can be applied through their lives (Elkind, 2007).

Social Skills

Teachers are put into task to aid children nature social skills that will enable them interact with people efficiently and effectively. Play ensures that children interact naturally. Children practice several social skills such as cooperating, negotiating, listening and sharing (Spodek & Saracho, 1998). While playing, children take on roles that characterize their life experiences such as one playing the role of daddy and the other the baby. Moreover, the social aspect of play enables children practice certain skills that are needed in the school curricula. Sociodramatic play provides an avenue to learn the values of currencies while playing store. Through cardboard spaceship, children learn new vocabularies while as children prepare menus while playing pretend restaurants they develop writing and reading skills. Furthermore as children play they may create or re-create rules of games so as to suit different scenarios. During conversations of creating game rules enables them to negotiate, discuss and analyze various scenarios of game.

Physical Skills

Lastly, playing has been associated to healthy development of the body. Studies show that various plays enhance different parts of the body. A young infant’s play movement largely contributes to his locomotive movements. Children at the age of five months adopt the ability to reach and grasp by playing particular objects and surfaces that lie around them(Bourgeois,2005).By eleven months, infants prefer certain objects of play and would be able to manipulate them in more complex ways(Schneider,2009).Through manipulation of objects during the play, children gain object control skills such as ease of grasp of object(Bourgeois,2005).As children get older they acquire more locomotive skills as they play such as standing,sitting,walking and crawling.

The major reason of encouraging play in earlier years of life is to promote physical health as low physical activity level may lead to health problems at old age. Inactive children are more likely to be obese at childhood and as adults. Adult obesity causes heart diseases, cancer, diabetes and other complex medical conditions (Hassan, 2005). Children that rarely engage in play have greater health risk in factors such as high cholesterol levels, triglycerides and blood pressure. These factors may begin showing from as the age of four years. These studies should lend an urgency of increasing the levels of play in schools and at home. Therefore parents and teachers should enrich plays that strengthen physical development.

References

Bourgeois, K. S., Akhawar, A. W., Neal, S. A., & Lockman, J. J. (2005). Infant manual of            objects, surfaces, and their interrelations. Infancy, 8, 233–252.

Brooks, J.G., & Brooks, M.G. (1993).In search of understanding: The case for constructivist                 classrooms.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Elkind, D. (2007).The power of play: How spontaneous, imaginative activities lead to       happier, healthier children. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.

Hassan, M. K., Joshi, A. V., Madhavan S. S., & Amonkar, M. M. (2005). Obesity and health-       related of life: A cross-sectional analysis of the US population. International Journal of         Obesity, 27, 1227–1232.

Mooney, C. G. (2000). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson,    Piaget and Vygotsky. St. Paul, MN: Reedleaf Press.

Schneider, H., & Lounsbery, M. (2008). Setting the stage for lifetime physical activity in early      childhood. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 79(6), 19-23.

Spodek, B., & Saracho, O.N. (1998). The challenge of educational play. In D.Bergen (ED.),         Readings from play as a medium for learning and development (pp.11-28). Olney, MD:     Association for Childhood Education International.

6 Point Lesson Plans

1. A Differentiated Reading Lesson Plan

Class: Elementary Level

Unit: Number 1962, Reading Conception: The Great King of Ayuatthaya: King Naresuan

Teacher:

Focus and Review:

Objectives: Terminal Goal The students will develop their reading skill through comprehension of the events taking place in the story and defining / or coming up with meaning in regard to various terminologies met while reading the text. Enabling Goal By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:Silently read the tale The Great King of Ayutthaya: King Naresuan.Determine the connotations or meaning of terminologies found in the story.Understand the occurrences of the story via answering the asked questions.Take part in class discussions and share concepts or ideas.

Standards: NC- North Carolina Professional Teaching Standards (updated 2010). Standard 2, Descriptor b and c, Indicator 1(Teachers Establish a Respectful Environment for a Diverse Population of Students; Students categorized as ELL, Disabled, Gifted Students, Average Learners, and Slow Learners).Standard 3, Descriptor a, Indicator 1, and Descriptor d, Indicator 1(Teachers Know the Content They Teach; A Brief Introduction into the Reading given to attract student attention).Standard 4, Descriptor c and h, Indicator 1 and 2 (Teachers Facilitate Learning for their Students, Learning Materials Provided).

Materials: Pictures that include naresuan.Snapshot_2315, IMG_02.JPG, vlcsnap_20h27m05s17.English to Thai Translated Dictionary.Student Information Sheet Number 1: The Great King of Ayuatthaya: King Naresuan. Authored by Supising Jirapon,(M.ed). Phitsanulok, Thailand: Naresuan University.Vocabularies; See Student Information Sheet Number 2.Worksheet Number 1 for Students: Give a Definition of the Following Words.Worksheet Number 2 for Students. Understand the Occurrences in the Story.

Duration: 4 sessions of 50 minutes each

Anticipatory Set: Briefly introduce the text that is to be read and explain what would happen in each of the four sessions that would be used to enhance reading skills. That is, the Reading session, Comprehension session, Definition of Terms, and Assessment Session. A framework for the information that is to be used in the whole exercise is now defined.

Teaching: Input Division of class into groups of five members each. A secretary is selected in each group for purposes of taking relevant notes to the discussions and provides a list illustrating the level of participation of each individual.Distribution of the student’s information sheet number 1. Modelling Each group reads the text silently.Each group looks up for the meaning of all complex words in their individual English to Thai translated dictionaries.Have the students talk about the occurrences in the story and share their perceptions independently.Students outline what they are familiar with in regard to the subject matter. This helps students with memory lapses and understanding capabilities link the current reading to past literary works that were initially analyzed. Checking for Understanding Teacher walks around the class room and observes the participation of students.Teacher hands out the student information sheet number 2 to each student and give a further, detailed explanation.Have students to go over to test their understanding. Questioning Strategies Stimulate class discussions by showing some pictures in the text, previewing each, and asking oral questions, which are relevant to the subject and the occurrences in the narrative. For instance, what exactly is the picture concerning? Which individuals are in the picture shown? Who, from the class, recognizes King Naresuan? When was his reign in the Ayuatthaya era?Have volunteers from amongst the students respond to the questions. This keeps fast learners busy, thus maintaining their interest in the process of reading.Teacher gives a summary of all the responses given. The interest of slow learners is taken care of in this case.

Guided Practice:Class is assigned to complete the student Worksheet number 1 and 2, in addition to comprehending the occurrences of the story.Each student defines the terminologies in Worksheet number 2 individually. This eases the understanding of English Language Learners (ELLs), thus keeping them at par with students who are familiar with such technical English vocabularies.Every one of the worksheets is completed by every student and brought back to the teacher for checking and verification.The teacher corrects the possible mistakes observed.

Closure:A statement of the objectives, and how they have been met in the study.A review on what should be done in each stage in order to completely read and understand the document. This similarly helps slow learners capture what they might have missed out. Summary and clarification of mistakes noticed in individual work to the whole class.Responding to any questions asked after the clarifications are made. At risk learners get a chance to gain a better understanding of the concepts taught during the lesson. An assessment will be done based on: The verbal responses that the students give in regard to their capacity to correctly answer the questions raised from the narrative.The understanding of the occurrences or events in the story, which would aid in answering the questions outlined in Student Information Worksheet Number 1.The evaluation of the correct identification and definition of terminologies, mainly via choosing their correct meanings.Evaluations of participation levels while in class, and more so in regard to sharing one’s perceptions independently.

Independent Practice: Students read further into this story, and come up with possible questions that are left unanswered from the story. Reference “The Story of the story of King Naresuan”. Nation Multimedia. Retrieved March 1st, 2014 from http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2007/02/05/opinion/opinion_30025974.php

• A Differentiated Mathematics Lesson Plan

Class: Grade 3

Unit: Volumes and Area

Teacher:

Focus and Review: Visiting the various shapes of solids identified in the previous class. Particular interest given to their drawing and dimensions. Various types of measuring units mentioned in the previous class mentioned to give students a clear picture. These are particularly advantageous to at risk students and those with poor memory or suffer memory lapses. It helps them link what had been learnt before in relation to the current unit of study.

Objectives: Students will be able to: Give a description of the difference that exists between volume and area.Appreciate the relationships between various measuring units used in mathematics.

Standards: Standard 2, Descriptor b and c, Indicator 1(Teachers Establish a Respectful Environment for a Diverse Population of Students; Students categorized as ELL, Disabled, Gifted Students, Average Learners, and Slow Learners).Standard 3, Descriptor a, Indicator 1, and Descriptor d, Indicator 1(Teachers Know the Content They Teach; A Brief Introduction into the Reading given to attract student attention).Standard 4, Descriptor c and h, Indicator 1 and 2 (Teachers Facilitate Learning for their Students, Learning Materials Provided).

Materials: Newspaper.Scissors.Masking Tape.Rulers.Meter Sticks.Cardboard (together with a cutting tool).Markers for discovering and separating complete models.

Duration: 50 minute lesson.

Anticipatory Set: Focusing the attention of students to the subject matter of contemplation. A

Teaching: Input Students given materials, but there are no initial directives given in regard to how the models should be built. Area and Volume are defined, with diagrammatic representation given to students. Modelling The teacher draws squares and cubes, both in meters and centimeters. Uses the formulas: Area = Length * Width, and Volume = Length * Width * Height, to calculate the area and volume respectively. Checking for Understanding Students draw rectangles and cuboids, in both meters and centimeters. They then calculate their area and volume, using the formulas given by the teacher. Questioning Strategies Students are allowed to discuss the differences and similarities noted in the illustrated diagrams. The teacher asks for the difference between an area and volume (Gifted students give answers). Free and open sharing of ideas takes place.Students list the differences and derive general expressions used to relate meters and centimeters (At risk students get the clear difference at this point and average students develop their understanding further).

Guided Practice:Students placed in groups with gifted mathematics students as group leaders.They build rectangles and cuboids with measurements in centimeters, inches, feet, and meters.They build squares and cubes in centimeters, inches, feet, and meters.Cross sectional areas and volumes calculated alongside the models.General conversion formulas developed in class under the supervision of the teacher.The teacher marks correctly calculated area and volumes of models.

Closure:Review and summary of key points learnt in the lesson. Teacher summarizes the relationship the units of measurement used in the lesson.Display of correctly built models. Assessment General questions asking students to calculate the area and volume of rectangular football fields and square objects in various units of measurements would be used.

Independent Practice:Groups to research and make notes on any other shapes whose volume and area could be calculated and built. A presentation to be given in the next class Reference Welch, T. (1996). Area, Perimeter, and Volume. Retrieved 1st March, 2014 from http://cmse.olemiss.edu/files/2011/11/AreaPeriVol.pdf

• A Differentiated Writing Lesson Plan

Class: Intermediate and Upper Intermediate Levels

Unit: Writing Skills: How to Write Adverts (Advertising)

Teacher:

Focus and Review: A general overview of what an advert is will be given. Students will mention various types of adverts that they have met or seen before, without necessarily using professional skills to categorize them.

Objectives:To raise consciousness of the kind of language to use while writing an advert or advertising, such as glowing idioms, superlative phrases, extreme adjectives, and travel vocabulary.To make use of the objective language as a foundation for writing an effective advert for the towns that the students come from.

Standards: Standard 2, Descriptor b and c, Indicator 1(Teachers Establish a Respectful Environment for a Diverse Population of Students; Students categorized as ELL, Disabled, Gifted Students, Average Learners, and Slow Learners).Standard 3, Descriptor a, Indicator 1, and Descriptor d, Indicator 1(Teachers Know the Content They Teach; A Brief Introduction into the Reading given to attract student attention).Standard 4, Descriptor c and h, Indicator 1 and 2 (Teachers Facilitate Learning for their Students, Learning Materials Provided).

Materials: Four editions of the text to be advertised, marked a, b, c, and d.Language Analysis and Practice (Adjectives used for advertisements).The idioms used in advertisements.Travel vocabulary.Writing Practice.Answer Key.

Duration: 1 hour

Anticipatory Set: The teacher will give a general description of the materials required for this lesson.

Teaching: Input Versions a, b, c, and d will be given to the students. Each of the texts is spaced differently. Modelling The students will later form groups of 4, and each group will have one document for each version (a total of 4).Students make use of their gaps to list relevant questions, with 8 spaces in each edition, to bring out the response for each space.Students will form 4 groups of a, b, c, and d. In the groups, they will enquire and respond to each others’ query (The above steps should take at most 15 minutes). Checking for Understanding The teacher will hand the students 3 sheets for the handout of language analysis and practice.The students will work through the 3 sheets as individuals and then later come together in groups to share their responses.The students would be left in the same groups for the session of language analysis and practice.The groups would be changed after the above session. This will allow for diverse dynamics of contact or interaction and support weak students who may not be benefiting from their previous groups. Questioning Strategies

Guided Practice: The teacher will give out a writing practice and give the individual students time to write their own adverts (The time allowed for this is 15 minutes). This will take place under direct supervision of the teacher.

Closure: The above exercise will leave between 10 and 15 minutes that the students will use to sell or advertise their towns.

Independent Practice: The students will be given homework to sell their school to the public, and include any information that would give the institution a positive image and make it a unique brand. References Harmer, J. (2006). How to teach writing. New Jersey: Pearson Education India. Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual review of applied linguistics, 13(1), 206-226. Willis, J. (1981). Teaching English through English (Vol. 8). ^ eUK UK: Longman.

• A Differentiated Science Lesson Pan

Class: 5th Grade Science

Unit: Structural Adaptations of Animals: Beaks

Teacher:

Focus and Review: Students will have studied the meaning of “structural adaptations” (These are distinctive body forms that assist an animal stay alive). Students are already aware that the shapes of the body of birds, for instance feet, aid in their survival. In light of this argument, a foot that is webbed helps any type of bird to swim which thus catching its prey in water. The idea of structural adaptations would be applied to the beak of birds.

Objectives:Provided with five pictures of various beak forms found in birds, the student will be at a position to identify and differentiate them according to their varied uses. The uses include boring insects, crushing of seeds, sucking of nectar, amongst others, with a maximum of one mistake.

Standards: Standard 2, Descriptor b and c, Indicator 1(Teachers Establish a Respectful Environment for a Diverse Population of Students; Students categorized as ELL, Disabled, Gifted Students, Average Learners, and Slow Learners).Standard 3, Descriptor a, Indicator 1, and Descriptor d, Indicator 1(Teachers Know the Content They Teach; A Brief Introduction into the Reading given to attract student attention).Standard 4, Descriptor c and h, Indicator 1 and 2 (Teachers Facilitate Learning for their Students, Learning Materials Provided).

Materials: Pictures of birds that illustrate various types of beaks as described in the section of Guided Practice.Individual student worksheets as described in the section of independent practice.

Duration: A 24 hour lesson

Anticipatory Set: The teacher will perform a review of the meaning of phrase ‘structural adaptation’ together with the students and discuss the different adaptations of the feet of birds that they had initially studied.

Teaching: Input The teacher discusses the varied shapes of the beak of any bird and the type of meals or food that they eat. Modelling . While discussing various types of birds’ beak, students would be studying pictures of birds including sandpipers, woodpeckers, cardinals, hummingbirds, and nuthatches. The shapes of the beaks discussed are sample structural adaptations of birds. The unique shapes enable the birds to eat. Checking for Understanding The Beaks that are stout in shape help the birds crush seeds. Finches and cardinals have beaks that are stout. Beaks that are long and narrow are used in boring to catch insect preys. Creepers and nuthatches have beaks that are long and narrow, which can be used for wedging on the bark of the tree to uncover insect preys. The long and thin, delicate forms of beaks observed in a hummingbird are used for sucking nectar from flowers. Wide and strong, sharp pointed beaks such as the one observed in a woodpecker can be used for hammering into any tree, while the long and pointed types of beaks found on the sandpiper are meant for penetrating deeply into a sandy soil. Questioning Strategies

Guided Practice:The teacher provides students with books that contain several pictures of birds, with a central focus on the beak.The teacher will request the students to name the kind of food that the bird feeds on by observing the nature (shape) of its beak and making references to the illustrations initially provided by him or her.The teacher will respond in regard to the degree of accuracy attained by the student’s feedback.

Closure: The teacher summarizes the lesson and provides and highlights the significance of the lesson.

Independent Practice: Each student will receive a worksheet that has pictures of the 5 assortments of beaks that are initially described. Each of them will list the characteristics that are observable on the beaks and determine how the features identified help the birds in question eat particular food types. Differentiated Instructions The students will be exposed to similar content 3 times, that is, when the teacher gives examples and basic information, during the individual practice and response session, and finally when they work on individual worksheets.The teacher will provide support to the students during the lesson, particularly the practice and feedback session.The teacher will identify individuals that do not understand the contents of the lesson when they work individually on the worksheet provided. For such students, an assisting partner student would be assigned by the teacher to help them grasp the basic information of the lesson, while at the same time help them work on the worksheet. Assessment Instruction: Observe and identify how each of these birds make use of its beak.   Hawk Pelican Owl                     Green Heron Eagle Flamingo     I.       Hawk _____________________________________________________________ Pelican __________________________________________________________________ Owl _____________________________________________________________________ Green Heron______________________________________________________________ Eagle ____________________________________________________________________ Flamingo _________________________________________________________________ Reference Conwell, C., & Cobb, K. (1990). Science equals success. Education Development Center, Inc. Newton, MA.

History and Concepts of Administrative Empowerment – WHE

Brief Introduction

In spite of the continued significant advancements in the workforce by women in the past years, there are still changes to be made to overcome systems of exclusion and biases. Given that women continue to play increasingly significant roles in leadership and administration of higher education institutions, understanding the history and concepts of administrative empowerment is very critical. As Steward (2009) explains, having an understanding of higher education administrators as well as ways in which they operate is significant in understanding the failure or successes of universities and colleges. The paper focuses on the history and development of administrative empowerment in higher education. It provides definitions of administrative empowerment as well as administrative empowerment in higher education. In addition, some definitions of administrative empowerment for academic female leaders in higher education have been provided.

The History and Development of Administrative Empowerment in Higher Education

The concept of empowerment in general emerged in the 1980s and its popularity increased in the high education 1990s. A decade later, the idea of having women in higher education has finally, but reluctantly, accepted by male educators as a result of the great need for more educated women as well as championing for the rights of the women in the society (Tiao, 2006).  According to Badah (2010), administrative empowerment has since been employed to ensure educational institutions` success. Taxak (2009) explains that higher education is currently being employed to empower the society with the objective of encouraging economic development, making the women more politically active and involved in matters related to legal rights (Aggarwal, 2014; Lau, 2010). In regards to administrative empowerment for academic female leaders in higher education Dunn, Gerlach, and Hyle (2014) despite the emphasis on administrative empowerment, women in academic administration are underrepresented. As such, masculine practices tend to exclude women. Moreover, fewer women serving senior administrative in research-intensive and prestigious institutions as well as higher education are few, hence underrepresentation.

Concerning minority women presence in administrative professionals because of empowerment, Hale (2009) notes that women are still not fully empowered and the positions held are very low despite the campaign to increase women in administrative positions through higher education. Women have been left out as they are increasingly being incorporated into the administrative system (Becks-Moody, 2004; Britton, 2013). Women continue to play an ever influential and increasing role in administration in her education. However, more women need to be empowered to be part of the female leaders in higher education.

The Concept of Administrative Empowerment

            In order to understand the concept of administrative empowerment, it is vital to define empowerment. Empowerment is the process of moving from a weak position to a higher position to execute power (AL-Rousan, 2014; AL Ajlouni, 2013). There are different definitions for administrative empowerment. As defined by Taani (2011, p. 205), “administrative empowerment is an organizational strategy, and a new skill designed to give workers the authorities, responsibilities, and the freedom to perform the work in their own way without the direct intervention of the administration, while providing all the resources, and appropriate working environment for rehabilitation professionally and behaviorally to perform the work with full confidence in them” (AL- Magableh & Otoum, 2014). Administrative empowerment is therefore a strategy employed to empower people and increase the level of confidence and self-esteem. Similarly, Badah (2010) perceives the administrative empowerment as a strategy used by organizations such as educational institutions to ensure the survival and continuity of the organization. It is used to secure performance effectiveness of the workers based on the use of human resources and knowledge management processes. El Geushy and Khalek (2011) noted that administrative empowerment as the forces, which people acquire to increase individual loyalty and confidence. In this context, administrative empowerment can be concluded as the process to improve their processes and activities necessary in daily undertakings.

As regards to administrative empowerment in higher education, Aggarwal (2014), has stated that higher education offers empowerment to women and in this context, it is the process of improving the administrative positions of women in higher education. On the other hand, Banerje (2014) defines administrative empowerment in higher education commitment to equip women with the required managerial skills by empowering them to make effective decision-making role.

As regards to administrative empowerment for academic female leaders in higher education Dunn et al., (2014) carried a research and based their arguments on responses of three women and established that administrative to be the process of ensuring that women are academically empowered to be in a position to be part of scholars and hold higher positions.

Conclusion

The history and development of administrative empowerment in higher education has been developing over the years slowly and at last accepted. In reference to administrative empowerment in higher education, the number of women has increased although at a slower pace. It is an organizational strategy employed to ensure that women in higher education are empowered.

Reference List

Aggarwal, M. (2014). A study on challenge for women empowerment. Journal of Research in Commerce & Management, 3(1), 70-73.

AL Ajlouni. M. I. (2013). The Relationship between Knowledge Management and Empowerment of Administrative on Organizational Trust. European Journal of Business and Management, 5(1), 230-237

AL- Magableh , M. Q., &Otoum, A. M. (2014). The Administrative Empowerment and its Relationship with the Innovative Behavior among the Head / Coordinators of the Academic Department at the Faculty of Science and Arts, Sharurah – Najran University.International Research in Education 2( 2), 83-106.

AL-Rousan, M. N. (2014). The Relationship between the Management Information System and the Administrative Empowerment (A field study on the Jordanian banking sector). International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology, 4(3), 121-129

Badah , A. (2010). Relationship between the knowledge management processes and the administrative empowerment with the employees of the ministry of higher education and scientific research- Jordan.European Scientific Journal, 8(28), 191-108.

Banerje, R. (2014). Restructuring Indian Higher Education: Strategies for Women’s Empowerment. Retrieved from http://www.graduatewomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/banerjee2.pdf.

Becks-Moody, G. M. (2004). African American Women Administrators In Higher Education: Exploring The Challenges And Experiences At Louisiana Public Colleges And Universities. Retrieved from http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-10222004-111952/unrestricted/Becks-Moody_dis.pdf

Britton, L. M. (2013). African American Women in Higher Education: Challenges Endured and Strategies Employed to Secure a Community College Presidency. Dissertations Paper 68. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.nl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=diss

Dunn, D.,  Gerlach, J. M., & Hyle, A. E. (2014). Gender and Leadership: Reflections of Women in Higher Education Administration. International Journal of Leadership and Change, 2(1).Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=ijlc.

El Geushy, Y. A., & Khalek, A. (2011).Administrative Empowerment of Sports for All Specialists. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 4 (2), 133-138.

Hale, M. A. (2009). Minority women in administrative professional positions in higher education. Graduate Theses and Dissertations paper. Retrieved from http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1354&context=etd.

Lau, W. K. (2010). Empowerment of non-academic personnel in higher education: exploring associations with perceived organizational support for innovation and organizational trust. Retrieved from http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2028&context=etd

Steward, J. M.(2009). Common characteristics of women leaders in higher education administration. Thesis. Retrieved from https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/10027/Steward_Jessi_Mica_mpa2009su.pdf?sequence=1

Taxak, P.  (2009). Women empowerment through higher education. International Indexed & Refereed Research Journal, IV(40), 13-15

Tiao, N. (2006). Senior Women Leaders in Higher Education Overcoming Barriers to Success.Master’s Theses and Doctoral Dissertations. Paper 104.retrieved from http://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1103&context=theses

Special Education

Introduction

A learning debilitation is a condition that makes it difficult for a person to acquire knowledge as it interferes with basic learning skills; reading and writing. For example, a learning disability refers to instances when some students have difficulties with organization, time planning, and even paying attention for extended periods. Some learning disabilities are usually overlooked until adulthood because people with learning disabilities have average to above average intelligence (Kremenitzer, 2005). However, learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which stem from visual impairment, hearing problems. Whereas an individual with a learning disability can learn in a class with normal students, those with learning problems usually have challenges that make it impossible for them to learn with normal students. A student with learning disabilities can pass as perfectly normal since they are bright and they portray intelligence. It can, therefore, be referred to as a hidden disability. Examples of learning disabilities include dyscalculia (which makes comprehension of math symbols hard), dysgraphia, dyslexia, language processing disorder, and dyspraxia among many others. Though learning disabilities cannot be cured, it is possible for those affected to be successful both in schools and in their workplaces with proper support and intervention measures. Indeed, students with learning debilitates can focus their attention on academic success, especially with the help of their teachers in ensuring they are granted enough attention that will guarantee their academic success.

Theory

Some children suffer significantly from learning debilitates silently because some parents and teachers find it hard to diagnose a problem if the student is seen as intelligent when they pass exams. Undoubtedly, parents and teachers assume that as long as a student passes exams, then the student cannot have learning disabilities. According to Jean Piaget, who was a cognitivist, a student develops knowledge through years of sequential processes involving recognition, application, and evaluation. However, these processes are complex to students with learning difficulties. Hence, special education is important in such a case as it enables the students to obtain an education that is equivalent to the normal students. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act has further helped in promoting the education of students with special needs.

Evaluation

Child Assessment

The first step in ensuring that a child is classified as normal or has difficulty in learning is through an assessment. It is done through a diagnosis which entails interviews, observations of the student, rating the child’s behavior in relation to that of other learners, a psycho-educational assessment. It is critical to discuss a sample condition to correctly understand the assessment stage of a child. An example of a special needs child is one suffering from attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). It is a condition that causes hyperactivity and inattention thus making the affected students have difficulties in reading and writing (Greenhill & Ford, 2002).  In essence, such students struggle to recall and comprehend words that they have seen before because of the tendency to skim without placing meaning to words (Van de Weijer-Bergsma, 2012). In the classroom, these students find it hard to sit still, work independently, or be involved in discussions (Greenhill & Ford, 2002). The impulsivity in class often affects the students’ ability to socialize as they have a natural difficulty in interpreting social cues and controlling their anger. It also makes it difficult for them to be team players. Additionally, since these students cannot make rational ideas on their own, their teachers can help play a crucial role in their academic lives.

Increasing Parental Comfort during Meetings 

After carrying out an assessment, it is mandatory for teachers and the parents to develop a relationship as it has been discovered that a collaborative effort is useful in achieving the success of special needs children. The teacher can arrange for meetings with the parents in a comfortable setting so that they can device problem-solving measures that can help the concerned students (Wannarka & Ruhl, 2008).  Moreover, teachers that teach children with special needs are well equipped with strategies that can work for every effected individual. So the teacher should provide the parents with the topics to be discussed day or two in advance so that they have time to research them. Since the parent is in a position to monitor the child from home, the teacher should always find out if there are new changes in the student’s program or even medication. 

Teacher Attitude

The attitude of every special needs teacher is essential as it leads to the formation of a healthy environment for students with learning disabilities. Special needs students have environmental triggers that worsen their conditions, thus a teacher needs to avoid the triggers and has a positive attitude to ensure the success of a lesson (Tattum, 2006). Additionally, the teacher should establish a caring relationship with individual students and learn their needs which will lead to success in their performance. Name calling and disrespectful remarks should not be used by teachers at any time (Pierce, 2004). A special needs student can benefit from a teacher who is highly organized and a functioning classroom routine whereby learning is learner-based. Teacher handling the special needs students’ have to be enthusiastic and have a positive attitude. A child with the dyscalculia condition, for instance,  needs a lot of patience from the teacher thus the teacher needs to develop a flexible way of teaching them (Umbreit et al., 2004). Additionally, the teachers should take up the role of working with the parents to ensure the academic and behavioral roles are achieved. They should have constant consultations with psychologists and monitor the child’s response to the approaches that they implement. Most importantly, they should keenly observe, note down, and report areas of progress and behavior concerns to the child’s parents. Therefore, it is apparent that collaboration between teachers and the parents of children with special learning needs is crucial in helping them.

Communicating about the Child’s Needs

Since a teacher must observe and document a child’s behavior, it is also important to communicate the child’s needs to the parents. A special needs teacher should be non-judgmental and focus on describing the child’s weakness to the parents (Fonagy & Kurtz, 2002). It is important for every special needs teacher to understand that negating the child’s weaknesses hurts the parents. Moreover, the teacher should consistently communicate with the parents and clarify their concerns. A step by step involvement of the parents is important as through it they can implement the same strategies at home to ensure the student improves. Furthermore, teachers should not neglect any change in the learners. Also, hostility or aggressiveness should be reported to the parents so that the student does not harm himself or herself.

Homework as a Means of Communication

Teachers should strive to offer the special students homework as it will ensure they have enough time with the parents. Meaningful assignments will help the parents devise a proper way of communicating with their children as they will have to form a rapport with them as they discuss (Cooper & Tiknaz, 2006). Additionally, teachers should provide clear guidelines to parents concerning how to carry out the assignments. On the other hand, parents should set a regular time where they follow up the child’s homework. It is the role of the teacher to encourage the learner to be independent as they do their class work. Special needs learners need constant encouragement so that they feel like they are making progress. The parents can do the same even as they help their children at home.

Limiting Distraction in the Classroom

Some of the students with special needs are easily distracted. Therefore, it is important for the teacher to eliminate distracters for successful classroom sessions (Myers & Pianta, 2008). For example, buzzing sounds from the air conditioners and heaters can easily distract some learners. Hence, schools opt to provide children who have ADHD with headphones as they do their assignments so that they can maximize their attention.

Establishing class rules

The teacher should create rules and stick them on the board to enable the students to achieve the best from classroom sessions. The rules should focus on reminding learners that the classroom is where learning takes place and nothing else. Children with special needs may be impulsive and become violent or extremely happy (Tingstrom et al., 2006). The teacher should remind them that hitting others when they are angry is forbidden and that instead they should learn to be kind. The teacher can use role-play to pass the message that it is possible for one to be kind at all times. Moving around the classroom when a session is ongoing should not be encouraged. The teacher should encourage all the students to participate in physical activities so that they get an energy release.

Selecting Specific Areas for Improvement

The Individualized Program Plan (IPP) can be used by a teacher to identify a student’s areas of need (Ducharme &Shecter, 2011). The teacher can then develop a strategy to be used to help improve each learner’s success. Various special needs students are weak in various areas. Some might be weak in academic work; others might be poor in social interactions while others lack independence that is needed in life. For example, when handling a learner who has dyslexia, a teacher needs to know that patience is necessary (NICE, 2008). Hence, for example, the teacher may create a daily report and feed the student’s report and later analyze it to come up with solutions to each child’s problems. Improvement of every child is only guaranteed if the student is also involved because, in the long run, the student’s independent choices will play a significant role in the overall improvement. 

Establishing a Reinforcement System

Teachers can consult parents so that they come up with an effective reward system that will ensure the academic success of the learner. Special needs children love attention as it makes them feel loved and part of a family. Hence, if they are rewarded for their achievements the students will be encouraged to repeat the action and learn in the process (McCluskey, 2002).A dyslexic child, for example, can be motivated by words such as “good” or “well-done.” Some may be motivated when allowed to watch television when they correctly complete a specific number of sums. Teachers should also put in place strategies that can be used to demonstrate consequences of failing to comply with rules (Twemlow & Fonagy, 2005). Additionally, home-based rewards can be combined with the school-based ones for efficiency.

Helping Students To Develop Coping Skills

Students with various learning difficulties have problems with controlling their behavior. Self-evaluation is a problem as some often find it hard to sustain direction as they are consistently impulsive. Depression, anxiety, and anger management are also common problems experienced by these students (Embry, 2004). It is the role of teachers to establish a relationship with their students and communicate to them the value of self-control. Additionally, they can help the students by offering them positive models and demonstrating that it is possible to exercise self-control.

Involving Students

Ensuring the involvement of students in different activities is another mechanism that can be used to help students with learning difficulties as the students’ peer group has an influential role in determining the quality of student behavior (Cooper &Jacobs, 2011). Teachers can create a platform for positive peer reporting whereby the students are rewarded for reporting each other’s positive behavior. By rewarding both the person reporting and the nominees, they will be encouraged to explore of positive behavior (British Medical Association, 2006). The teacher can also encourage buddying whereby students are paired up and one serves as a guide to the other. The buddies can help each other to develop excellent social skills such as interacting with others and controlling their anger so as not to hurt other children (Topping, 2005).

Summary

According to Sutherland et al. (2000), academic success is the main reason why psycho-social interventions are carried out in schools. Children with difficulties in learning owing to either neurological disorders, physical disabilities, or learning impairment all have the desire to be the best in schools. Therefore, it is crucial for every parent to keenly monitor the development of their children and their interaction with other people to enable them to notice the problem early enough. Parents should also provide their children’s histories when called upon by teachers and other physicians because such information helps to find solutions (Benn et al., 2012). In essence, some parents often report that they are unable to make their children to be respectful at home. In this case, teachers can provide school-based solutions for them to be used in managing the concerned children’s behaviors. Teachers should have a beneficial relationship with the parents so that it is easy to consult each other when necessary. Collaborative efforts are also required for teachers, psychologists, and parents for an efficient plan to be put in place for the sake of the special learners (Benn et al., 2012). Attention deficit/hyperactive, conduct, oppositional deficit, autistic, anxiety, and depressive disorders are some of the conditions that cause learning disabilities that teachers may come across in schools (Barrett et al., 2006). Undoubtedly, a positive attitude is required for anyone who will be dealing with students with learning disabilities. Additionally, it is important to understand that the students often do not know how to help their peers to understand them thus the reason why the teacher should be present to guide them (Kazdin, 2002). In a school system, emotional difficulties may be portrayed in the form of defiance to staff, truancy, and disruptive behavior in class as well as bullying. Schools should not typically respond by excluding the learners or suspending them (Flem et al., 2004). Instead, they should carry out background checks and involve the parents so that they can find a solution that will ensure the success of the learner.

Conclusion

The best solution to the problems of learners with learning debilitates is to find a way of identifying their triggers of negative behavior and remove them. For instance student who is continuously absent from school could be running away from a bully or hostile teacher. Additionally, teachers are encouraged to have a positive attitude and form a beneficial friendship with the learners. The teachers are the class managers, and hence they need to ensure that the environment they create in the classroom is favorable for learning to take place. This begins with how they interact with the learners and form relationships with them. Effective teachers have to build the confidence of their students by encouraging and motivating them to learn independence. The teacher should also eliminate visual and auditory stimulation that may distract the learners with learning disabilities. Moreover, Involving students in the learning experience will make them gain independence and achieve overall success in learning. Learning has to be learner-centered for the aim of schooling to be accomplished in the life of every student. Those with special needs require more attention than those without for success in their academics. The involvement of their parents is as important as the involvement of teachers and the other professionals like psychologists for the overall goal of success to be achieved.

References

Barrett, P, Farrell, L, Ollendick, T.& Dadds, M. (2006). Long-term outcomes of an Australian universal prevention trial of anxiety and depression symptoms in children and youth: An evaluation of the friends program. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(3), 403-411.

Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental psychology, 48(5), 1476.

British Medical Association. (2006). Child and adolescent mental health–a guide for healthcare professionals. BMA, London. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281282933_Child_and_Adolescent_Mental_Health_A_Guide_for_Healthcare_Professionals

Cooper, P., & Jacobs, B. (2011). From inclusion to engagement: Helping students engage with schooling through policy and practice. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved, from https://www.um.edu.mt/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/183876/Reviews.pdf

Cooper, P., & Tiknaz, Y. (2007). Nurture Groups in school and at home: Connecting with children with social, emotional and behavioral difficulties (Vol. 1). Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Ducharme, J. M., & Shecter, C. (2011). Bridging the gap between clinical and classroom intervention: Keystone approaches for students with challenging behavior. School Psychology Review, 40(2), 257. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/1ad29306eb65d6e8fafa9a5251029428/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=48217

Embry, D. D. (2004). Community‐based prevention using simple, low‐cost, evidence‐based kernels and behavior vaccines. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(5), 575-591.

Flem*, A., Moen, T., & Gudmundsdottir**, S. (2004). Towards inclusive schools: a study of inclusive education in practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(1), 85-98.

Fonagy, P. &. Kurtz. Z. (2002). Disturbance of conduct. In P Fonagy, M., Target, D., Cottrell, J., Phillips, A. and Z. Kurtz (Eds.) What works for whom? A critical review of treatments for children and adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.

Greenhill, L. L., & Ford, R. E. (1998). Childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: pharmacological treatments. A guide to treatments that work, 2, 25-55. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yjB-hstWSc8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA25&dq=Childhood+attention-deficit+hyperactivity+disorder:+Pharmacological+treatments+A+guide+to+treatments+that+work&ots=n6dxLDXhsQ&sig=HvuRZC1BbRGNHBHWK7xpA79V4cA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Childhood%20attention-deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder%3A%20Pharmacological%20treatments%20A%20guide%20to%20treatments%20that%20work&f=false

Kazdin, A. E. (2002). Psychosocial treatments for conduct disorder in children and adolescents. A guide to treatments that work, 2, 57-85. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yjB-hstWSc8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA57&dq=Psychosocial+treatments+for+conduct+disorder&ots=n6dxLDXixP&sig=wt5OQd-Pt0upIxBXbV8a4zwIVC8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Psychosocial%20treatments%20for%20conduct%20disorder&f=false

Kremenitzer, J. P. (2005). The emotionally intelligent early childhood educator: Self-reflective journaling. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(1), 3-9.

McCluskey, G., Lloyd, G., Stead, J., Kane, J., Riddell, S., & Weedon, E. (2008). ‘I was dead restorative today’: from restorative justice to restorative approaches in school. Cambridge Journal of Education, 38(2), 199-216.

Myers, S. S., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). Developmental commentary: Individual and contextual influences on student–teacher relationships and children’s early problem behaviors. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 600-608.

NICE (National Institute for Clinical Excellence) (2008). Guidance on the use of methylphenidate for ADHD and Conduct Disorder, London.

NICE Young, S & Amarasinghe, J. (2010). Practitioner Review: Non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD: A lifespan approach, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(2), 116–133.

Pierce, C. D., Reid, R., & Epstein, M. H. (2004). Teacher-mediated interventions for children with EBD and their academic outcomes: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 25(3), 175-188.

Sutherland, K. S., Wehby, J. H., & Copeland, S. R. (2000). Effect of varying rates of behavior-specific praise on the on-task behavior of students with EBD. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(1), 2-8. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/106342660000800101

Tattum, D.(2006). Disruptive pupils in schools and units. Chichester, UK: Wiley

Tingstrom, D. H., Sterling-Turner, H. E., & Wilczynski, S. M. (2006). The good behavior game: 1969-2002. Behavior modification, 30(2), 225-253.

Topping, K. J. (2005). Trends in peer learning. Educational psychology, 25(6), 631-645.

Twemlow, S. W., & Fonagy, P. (2005). The prevalence of teachers who bully students in schools with differing levels of behavioral problems. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(12), 2387-2389.

Umbreit, J., Lane, K. L., & Dejud, C. (2004). Improving classroom behavior by modifying task difficulty: Effects of increasing the difficulty of too-easy tasks. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 13-20.

Van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Formsma, A. R., de Bruin, E. I., & Bögels, S. M. (2012). The effectiveness of mindfulness training on behavioral problems and attentional functioning in adolescents with ADHD. Journal of child and family studies, 21(5), 775-787.

Wannarka, R., & Ruhl, K. (2008). Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioural outcomes: A review of empirical research. Support for Learning, 23(2), 89-93.

Special Education

Student’s Name

Institutional Affiliation

Special Education

Introduction

A learning debilitation is a condition that makes it difficult for a person to acquire knowledge as it interferes with basic learning skills; reading and writing. For example, a learning disability refers to instances when some students have difficulties with organization, time planning, and even paying attention for extended periods. Some learning disabilities are usually overlooked until adulthood because people with learning disabilities have average to above average intelligence (Kremenitzer, 2005). However, learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which stem from visual impairment, hearing problems. Whereas an individual with a learning disability can learn in a class with normal students, those with learning problems usually have challenges that make it impossible for them to learn with normal students. A student with learning disabilities can pass as perfectly normal since they are bright and they portray intelligence. It can, therefore, be referred to as a hidden disability. Examples of learning disabilities include dyscalculia (which makes comprehension of math symbols hard), dysgraphia, dyslexia, language processing disorder, and dyspraxia among many others. Though learning disabilities cannot be cured, it is possible for those affected to be successful both in schools and in their workplaces with proper support and intervention measures. Indeed, students with learning debilitates can focus their attention on academic success, especially with the help of their teachers in ensuring they are granted enough attention that will guarantee their academic success.

Theory

Some children suffer significantly from learning debilitates silently because some parents and teachers find it hard to diagnose a problem if the student is seen as intelligent when they pass exams. Undoubtedly, parents and teachers assume that as long as a student passes exams, then the student cannot have learning disabilities. According to Jean Piaget, who was a cognitivist, a student develops knowledge through years of sequential processes involving recognition, application, and evaluation. However, these processes are complex to students with learning difficulties. Hence, special education is important in such a case as it enables the students to obtain an education that is equivalent to the normal students. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act has further helped in promoting the education of students with special needs.

Evaluation

Child Assessment

The first step in ensuring that a child is classified as normal or has difficulty in learning is through an assessment. It is done through a diagnosis which entails interviews, observations of the student, rating the child’s behavior in relation to that of other learners, a psycho-educational assessment. It is critical to discuss a sample condition to correctly understand the assessment stage of a child. An example of a special needs child is one suffering from attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). It is a condition that causes hyperactivity and inattention thus making the affected students have difficulties in reading and writing (Greenhill & Ford, 2002).  In essence, such students struggle to recall and comprehend words that they have seen before because of the tendency to skim without placing meaning to words (Van de Weijer-Bergsma, 2012). In the classroom, these students find it hard to sit still, work independently, or be involved in discussions (Greenhill & Ford, 2002). The impulsivity in class often affects the students’ ability to socialize as they have a natural difficulty in interpreting social cues and controlling their anger. It also makes it difficult for them to be team players. Additionally, since these students cannot make rational ideas on their own, their teachers can help play a crucial role in their academic lives.

Increasing Parental Comfort during Meetings 

After carrying out an assessment, it is mandatory for teachers and the parents to develop a relationship as it has been discovered that a collaborative effort is useful in achieving the success of special needs children. The teacher can arrange for meetings with the parents in a comfortable setting so that they can device problem-solving measures that can help the concerned students (Wannarka & Ruhl, 2008).  Moreover, teachers that teach children with special needs are well equipped with strategies that can work for every effected individual. So the teacher should provide the parents with the topics to be discussed day or two in advance so that they have time to research them. Since the parent is in a position to monitor the child from home, the teacher should always find out if there are new changes in the student’s program or even medication. 

Teacher Attitude

The attitude of every special needs teacher is essential as it leads to the formation of a healthy environment for students with learning disabilities. Special needs students have environmental triggers that worsen their conditions, thus a teacher needs to avoid the triggers and has a positive attitude to ensure the success of a lesson (Tattum, 2006). Additionally, the teacher should establish a caring relationship with individual students and learn their needs which will lead to success in their performance. Name calling and disrespectful remarks should not be used by teachers at any time (Pierce, 2004). A special needs student can benefit from a teacher who is highly organized and a functioning classroom routine whereby learning is learner-based. Teacher handling the special needs students’ have to be enthusiastic and have a positive attitude. A child with the dyscalculia condition, for instance,  needs a lot of patience from the teacher thus the teacher needs to develop a flexible way of teaching them (Umbreit et al., 2004). Additionally, the teachers should take up the role of working with the parents to ensure the academic and behavioral roles are achieved. They should have constant consultations with psychologists and monitor the child’s response to the approaches that they implement. Most importantly, they should keenly observe, note down, and report areas of progress and behavior concerns to the child’s parents. Therefore, it is apparent that collaboration between teachers and the parents of children with special learning needs is crucial in helping them.

Communicating about the Child’s Needs

Since a teacher must observe and document a child’s behavior, it is also important to communicate the child’s needs to the parents. A special needs teacher should be non-judgmental and focus on describing the child’s weakness to the parents (Fonagy & Kurtz, 2002). It is important for every special needs teacher to understand that negating the child’s weaknesses hurts the parents. Moreover, the teacher should consistently communicate with the parents and clarify their concerns. A step by step involvement of the parents is important as through it they can implement the same strategies at home to ensure the student improves. Furthermore, teachers should not neglect any change in the learners. Also, hostility or aggressiveness should be reported to the parents so that the student does not harm himself or herself.

Homework as a Means of Communication

Teachers should strive to offer the special students homework as it will ensure they have enough time with the parents. Meaningful assignments will help the parents devise a proper way of communicating with their children as they will have to form a rapport with them as they discuss (Cooper & Tiknaz, 2006). Additionally, teachers should provide clear guidelines to parents concerning how to carry out the assignments. On the other hand, parents should set a regular time where they follow up the child’s homework. It is the role of the teacher to encourage the learner to be independent as they do their class work. Special needs learners need constant encouragement so that they feel like they are making progress. The parents can do the same even as they help their children at home.

Limiting Distraction in the Classroom

Some of the students with special needs are easily distracted. Therefore, it is important for the teacher to eliminate distracters for successful classroom sessions (Myers & Pianta, 2008). For example, buzzing sounds from the air conditioners and heaters can easily distract some learners. Hence, schools opt to provide children who have ADHD with headphones as they do their assignments so that they can maximize their attention.

Establishing class rules

The teacher should create rules and stick them on the board to enable the students to achieve the best from classroom sessions. The rules should focus on reminding learners that the classroom is where learning takes place and nothing else. Children with special needs may be impulsive and become violent or extremely happy (Tingstrom et al., 2006). The teacher should remind them that hitting others when they are angry is forbidden and that instead they should learn to be kind. The teacher can use role-play to pass the message that it is possible for one to be kind at all times. Moving around the classroom when a session is ongoing should not be encouraged. The teacher should encourage all the students to participate in physical activities so that they get an energy release.

Selecting Specific Areas for Improvement

The Individualized Program Plan (IPP) can be used by a teacher to identify a student’s areas of need (Ducharme &Shecter, 2011). The teacher can then develop a strategy to be used to help improve each learner’s success. Various special needs students are weak in various areas. Some might be weak in academic work; others might be poor in social interactions while others lack independence that is needed in life. For example, when handling a learner who has dyslexia, a teacher needs to know that patience is necessary (NICE, 2008). Hence, for example, the teacher may create a daily report and feed the student’s report and later analyze it to come up with solutions to each child’s problems. Improvement of every child is only guaranteed if the student is also involved because, in the long run, the student’s independent choices will play a significant role in the overall improvement. 

Establishing a Reinforcement System

Teachers can consult parents so that they come up with an effective reward system that will ensure the academic success of the learner. Special needs children love attention as it makes them feel loved and part of a family. Hence, if they are rewarded for their achievements the students will be encouraged to repeat the action and learn in the process (McCluskey, 2002).A dyslexic child, for example, can be motivated by words such as “good” or “well-done.” Some may be motivated when allowed to watch television when they correctly complete a specific number of sums. Teachers should also put in place strategies that can be used to demonstrate consequences of failing to comply with rules (Twemlow & Fonagy, 2005). Additionally, home-based rewards can be combined with the school-based ones for efficiency.

Helping Students To Develop Coping Skills

Students with various learning difficulties have problems with controlling their behavior. Self-evaluation is a problem as some often find it hard to sustain direction as they are consistently impulsive. Depression, anxiety, and anger management are also common problems experienced by these students (Embry, 2004). It is the role of teachers to establish a relationship with their students and communicate to them the value of self-control. Additionally, they can help the students by offering them positive models and demonstrating that it is possible to exercise self-control.

Involving Students

Ensuring the involvement of students in different activities is another mechanism that can be used to help students with learning difficulties as the students’ peer group has an influential role in determining the quality of student behavior (Cooper &Jacobs, 2011). Teachers can create a platform for positive peer reporting whereby the students are rewarded for reporting each other’s positive behavior. By rewarding both the person reporting and the nominees, they will be encouraged to explore of positive behavior (British Medical Association, 2006). The teacher can also encourage buddying whereby students are paired up and one serves as a guide to the other. The buddies can help each other to develop excellent social skills such as interacting with others and controlling their anger so as not to hurt other children (Topping, 2005).

Summary

According to Sutherland et al. (2000), academic success is the main reason why psycho-social interventions are carried out in schools. Children with difficulties in learning owing to either neurological disorders, physical disabilities, or learning impairment all have the desire to be the best in schools. Therefore, it is crucial for every parent to keenly monitor the development of their children and their interaction with other people to enable them to notice the problem early enough. Parents should also provide their children’s histories when called upon by teachers and other physicians because such information helps to find solutions (Benn et al., 2012). In essence, some parents often report that they are unable to make their children to be respectful at home. In this case, teachers can provide school-based solutions for them to be used in managing the concerned children’s behaviors. Teachers should have a beneficial relationship with the parents so that it is easy to consult each other when necessary. Collaborative efforts are also required for teachers, psychologists, and parents for an efficient plan to be put in place for the sake of the special learners (Benn et al., 2012). Attention deficit/hyperactive, conduct, oppositional deficit, autistic, anxiety, and depressive disorders are some of the conditions that cause learning disabilities that teachers may come across in schools (Barrett et al., 2006). Undoubtedly, a positive attitude is required for anyone who will be dealing with students with learning disabilities. Additionally, it is important to understand that the students often do not know how to help their peers to understand them thus the reason why the teacher should be present to guide them (Kazdin, 2002). In a school system, emotional difficulties may be portrayed in the form of defiance to staff, truancy, and disruptive behavior in class as well as bullying. Schools should not typically respond by excluding the learners or suspending them (Flem et al., 2004). Instead, they should carry out background checks and involve the parents so that they can find a solution that will ensure the success of the learner.

Conclusion

The best solution to the problems of learners with learning debilitates is to find a way of identifying their triggers of negative behavior and remove them. For instance student who is continuously absent from school could be running away from a bully or hostile teacher. Additionally, teachers are encouraged to have a positive attitude and form a beneficial friendship with the learners. The teachers are the class managers, and hence they need to ensure that the environment they create in the classroom is favorable for learning to take place. This begins with how they interact with the learners and form relationships with them. Effective teachers have to build the confidence of their students by encouraging and motivating them to learn independence. The teacher should also eliminate visual and auditory stimulation that may distract the learners with learning disabilities. Moreover, Involving students in the learning experience will make them gain independence and achieve overall success in learning. Learning has to be learner-centered for the aim of schooling to be accomplished in the life of every student. Those with special needs require more attention than those without for success in their academics. The involvement of their parents is as important as the involvement of teachers and the other professionals like psychologists for the overall goal of success to be achieved.

References

Barrett, P, Farrell, L, Ollendick, T.& Dadds, M. (2006). Long-term outcomes of an Australian universal prevention trial of anxiety and depression symptoms in children and youth: An evaluation of the friends program. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(3), 403-411.

Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental psychology, 48(5), 1476.

British Medical Association. (2006). Child and adolescent mental health–a guide for healthcare professionals. BMA, London. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281282933_Child_and_Adolescent_Mental_Health_A_Guide_for_Healthcare_Professionals

Cooper, P., & Jacobs, B. (2011). From inclusion to engagement: Helping students engage with schooling through policy and practice. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved, from https://www.um.edu.mt/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/183876/Reviews.pdf

Cooper, P., & Tiknaz, Y. (2007). Nurture Groups in school and at home: Connecting with children with social, emotional and behavioral difficulties (Vol. 1). Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Ducharme, J. M., & Shecter, C. (2011). Bridging the gap between clinical and classroom intervention: Keystone approaches for students with challenging behavior. School Psychology Review, 40(2), 257. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/1ad29306eb65d6e8fafa9a5251029428/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=48217

Embry, D. D. (2004). Community‐based prevention using simple, low‐cost, evidence‐based kernels and behavior vaccines. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(5), 575-591.

Flem*, A., Moen, T., & Gudmundsdottir**, S. (2004). Towards inclusive schools: a study of inclusive education in practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(1), 85-98.

Fonagy, P. &. Kurtz. Z. (2002). Disturbance of conduct. In P Fonagy, M., Target, D., Cottrell, J., Phillips, A. and Z. Kurtz (Eds.) What works for whom? A critical review of treatments for children and adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.

Greenhill, L. L., & Ford, R. E. (1998). Childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: pharmacological treatments. A guide to treatments that work, 2, 25-55. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yjB-hstWSc8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA25&dq=Childhood+attention-deficit+hyperactivity+disorder:+Pharmacological+treatments+A+guide+to+treatments+that+work&ots=n6dxLDXhsQ&sig=HvuRZC1BbRGNHBHWK7xpA79V4cA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Childhood%20attention-deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder%3A%20Pharmacological%20treatments%20A%20guide%20to%20treatments%20that%20work&f=false

Kazdin, A. E. (2002). Psychosocial treatments for conduct disorder in children and adolescents. A guide to treatments that work, 2, 57-85. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yjB-hstWSc8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA57&dq=Psychosocial+treatments+for+conduct+disorder&ots=n6dxLDXixP&sig=wt5OQd-Pt0upIxBXbV8a4zwIVC8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Psychosocial%20treatments%20for%20conduct%20disorder&f=false

Kremenitzer, J. P. (2005). The emotionally intelligent early childhood educator: Self-reflective journaling. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(1), 3-9.

McCluskey, G., Lloyd, G., Stead, J., Kane, J., Riddell, S., & Weedon, E. (2008). ‘I was dead restorative today’: from restorative justice to restorative approaches in school. Cambridge Journal of Education, 38(2), 199-216.

Myers, S. S., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). Developmental commentary: Individual and contextual influences on student–teacher relationships and children’s early problem behaviors. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 600-608.

NICE (National Institute for Clinical Excellence) (2008). Guidance on the use of methylphenidate for ADHD and Conduct Disorder, London.

NICE Young, S & Amarasinghe, J. (2010). Practitioner Review: Non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD: A lifespan approach, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(2), 116–133.

Pierce, C. D., Reid, R., & Epstein, M. H. (2004). Teacher-mediated interventions for children with EBD and their academic outcomes: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 25(3), 175-188.

Sutherland, K. S., Wehby, J. H., & Copeland, S. R. (2000). Effect of varying rates of behavior-specific praise on the on-task behavior of students with EBD. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(1), 2-8. Retrieved October 20, 2017, from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/106342660000800101

Tattum, D.(2006). Disruptive pupils in schools and units. Chichester, UK: Wiley

Tingstrom, D. H., Sterling-Turner, H. E., & Wilczynski, S. M. (2006). The good behavior game: 1969-2002. Behavior modification, 30(2), 225-253.

Topping, K. J. (2005). Trends in peer learning. Educational psychology, 25(6), 631-645.

Twemlow, S. W., & Fonagy, P. (2005). The prevalence of teachers who bully students in schools with differing levels of behavioral problems. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(12), 2387-2389.

Umbreit, J., Lane, K. L., & Dejud, C. (2004). Improving classroom behavior by modifying task difficulty: Effects of increasing the difficulty of too-easy tasks. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 13-20.

Van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Formsma, A. R., de Bruin, E. I., & Bögels, S. M. (2012). The effectiveness of mindfulness training on behavioral problems and attentional functioning in adolescents with ADHD. Journal of child and family studies, 21(5), 775-787.

Wannarka, R., & Ruhl, K. (2008). Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioural outcomes: A review of empirical research. Support for Learning, 23(2), 89-93.

Strategic Planning for Educational Leadership

Introduction

Strategic thinking describes how people think about and assess their desired future and create it for themselves and others.Strategic thinking can be used in work or personal context to guide the making of decisions by an individual (Bowman, 2016). The person that is applying strategic think has to have goals and objectives for the short term and long term. This makes it easier for them to plan their actions along the way and ensure that the desired future is achieved effectively. To become effective at strategic thinking, there is a need to develop a set of mental and cognitive skills.

Strategic thinking

            Without cultivating on these skills, it becomes very hard to plan for the future and lay out a set of actions that will be taken to achieve it (Ebersole, 2017). This is done while making allowances for unexpected contingencies along the way. Most of the persons holding managerial and executive positions in organizations and institutions are required to be very competent in strategic thinking. The same applies for persons having senior positions in the government.

A strategic thinker must have the ability to use both sides or segments of the brain. The left side of the human brain is responsible for logic while the right side enables creativity (Bowman, 2016). Combining both makes the individual capable of analyzing the situation at hand, make predictions for the future and imagine the desired future together with a gameplan of how it can be achieved (Bryson, 2017). To use both sides of the brain requires a lot of practice and confidence. It is a very valuable skill to have. A second skill that is needed in strategic thinking is the ability to have a vision that is focused (Ebersole, 2017). This applies in both personal and career or organizational vision. Having a strategic purpose and a vision purpose are qualities that complement each other in strategic thinking and increase the odds of future success.

            In addition to having a clear vision, an effective strategic thinker needs to have the ability to have well-defined objectives that are accompanied by action plans. Each of the objectives ought to be broken down into specific tasks, with the resources required for each task listed down (Bryson, 2017). A timeline for the completion of each task should also be well defined. Strategic plans do not always flow or work out as expected by the strategist. This is the reason why a strategic thinker should include some level of flexibility in their plans to cater for the possible challenges and deviations from the action plan (Ebersole, 2017). Benchmarks that are to be used in reviewing the progress of the strategic plan should also be put in place. The benchmarks are useful in recognition of opportunities that might initiate a revision of the initial plan (Bowman, 2016). This can only be possible if the strategic thinker is proactive and anticipates a change at any time in the implementation stage of the plan as opposed being reactive to changes after they have already taken place.

A high level of awareness and perceptiveness is required of the strategic thinker. They are capable of recognizing external and internal clues in their environment and use them later to recognize an opportunity that can be incorporated in the strategic plan (Bowman, 2016). They are good and attentive thinkers, listeners and readers that will use the subtle information they collect every day to come up with solutions and plans for their personal and career lives. A strategic thinker must embrace learning in his/her whole lifetime (Ebersole, 2017). This is because learning has the effect of gifting them with experiences that became handy when thinking strategic issues and plans (Bryson, 2017). Strategic thinking requires the person doing it to occasionally take some time off from their major occupations. This is usually a form of retreat or vacation, and it is on such occasions that great ideas for a strategic plan are stumbled upon.

Importance of strategic thinking

            Strategic thinking has numerous merits in personal life and business life as well. It forces an individual to make predictions of the future based on the present conditions. A strategic thinker then has the responsibility of ensuring that he/she is well prepared for that future or to make provisions that will make the later outcome favorable (Hill, 2014). Strategic thinking makes an individual or a team question the status quo and want to improve the performance of the organization or the quality of life of the members of the organization (Verghese, 2017). The curiosity that is roused by questioning makes it possible to view the available information from different perspectives. Through doing this, different approaches, possibilities, and outcomes are realized by the strategists.

            This approach to planning and making decisions enhances the leadership skills of a person. This is made possible by the coherence of communication of ideas that a strategic thinker gives to the other members of the team in an organization. The information possessed gains the strategic thinker respect among peers and subordinates, making it easier for them to trust his/her directives and execute accordingly (Hill, 2014). By so doing, the processes taking place in the organization are streamlined, improving the performance of the company later on (Johnsen, 2015). Strategic approach in making decisions by a firm boosts the confidence of the members in the leader and also gives the management boldness required to handle conflicts at the workplace in a fair manner that leaves all the involved parties satisfied with the resolution given.

            Most organizations and business tend to deal with limited resources in times of money, people and time. Strategic thinking takes this into consideration when coming up with plans for the future and gives the owner a glimpse on how the limited resources can be used to attain the objectives of the company in an efficient and effective manner (Hill, 2014). Strategic thinking reveals to the management the teams and markets that are most likely to succeed and those likely to fail with a fair degree of accuracy (Verghese, 2017). In this manner, it assists the company in avoiding costly mistakes. An example of a mistake that can be avoided by a firm is setting up of a new retail branch in a location where there is low human traffic.

Engaging in strategic thinking helps the decision makers in an organization to acknowledge that the business environment is dynamic  (Verghese, 2017). Changes are experienced all the time. Changes can be experienced in the national or local economy; the spending power of the consumers varies from time to time; and prices for inventory can rise or fall unexpectedly (Hill, 2014). These changes can represent either a threat or an opportunity to the organization. Strategic thinking makes the management prepare adequately these changes and maximises the opportunities and advantages presented by the changes.

Strategic thinkers run their organizations like a chess player. The opponent, in this case, includes the competitors and other players in the industry (Santovec, 2014). An organization that applies strategic thinking has a habit of continually comparing its strengths and weakness with those of the competitors in the field (Verghese, 2017). The outcomes of this comparison are used in the determination of the right time to turn the tides in its favor (Hill, 2014). This approach of thinking gives the management of an organization a chess mentality, which determine where, when, and how to improve products and services. It also determines the message that is sent out to the consumers and marketplace at a particular time.

The growth of a business is the best metric of indicating the progress of the organization. As such, businesses are always under great pressure to grow. The growth of an organization is often accompanied by higher revenues for the investors and success in the competition with other organizations (Verghese, 2017). Having strategic thinkings makes the management feel under pressure to evolve their practices and make the company move forward (Bianca, 2014). This leads to increased innovation in the company, regarding processes and operations (Hill, 2014). The company, thus, becomes a trend setter as opposed to a follower in the market. Once a company is identified as dynamic, it usually ends up appealing to the market more and increases its market share.

As mentioned earlier on, decision making is a key function of the management and strategic thinkers in an organization. Firms that have made strategic thinking a core component of their management philosophy often become better at strategic thinking over time (Bianca, 2014). Strategic thinkers tend to realize how making small, almost insignificant changes in their business environments results in a profound effect on their revenues (Verghese, 2017). Strategic thinking enables the management to make decisions that would have been overlooked earlier on, and in the process make the company more competitive (Hill, 2014). A strategic thinker is in a position to predict with a good degree of accuracy how the competitors are likely to react to the actions and strategies they put in place. It makes the management and leadership of an organization to start viewing it as their consumers would do, thereby making the business decisions based on what would best appeal to the clients.

Strategic thinking in an educational setting

            Education is a strategy in itself, aimed at ensuring that the population is knowledgeable enough to continue with the advancement of civilization. It is a form long term investment in the younger generation, to impart values and knowledge that will be used in the continuity of the human race (Billingham, 2012). Education ensures that mankind does not revert to primitive practices, and this is done by preserving the knowledge that has been acquired over the years (Santovec, 2014). An education system is organized in a manner that enables the products of that system to be capable of facing and resolving present challenges. It also imparts them with curiosity that makes them become innovators in various fields.

 In education strategic thinking can help improve the performance of the students and also in making materials taught in school more practical and applicable in real life. The allocation of resources in the education sector is one of the major ways in which strategic thinking is applied in planning for the future of the sector (Santovec, 2014). The application od strategic thinking in the education sector is a bit different from the business sector. The difference comes from the fact that in the business sector, the strategy is aimed at getting more customers and higher revenues (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). In education, the intention is to achieve all the broad goals of improving the performance of students and responding effectively to the changes in the demographic while staying within the restricted budget that is given to the schools (Cook, 2012). An educator needs to understand the differences between operating in the education sector and business, to assist in the application of targeted strategic planning.

            The application of strategic planning in the education sector began in the 1980’s, and this was done by adopting the models that were used in the private business sector. Over time, strategic planning in the education sector had evolved and diverged from the original models that were applied initially (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). The reason for this is to suit the needs and philosophies of the education sector, which are much different from the ones used in private businesses (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). Some scholars have even expressed concerns that strategic planning in the education sector is so distinct from mainstream strategic planning, that there is a need to coin a new name for it (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). There is an increased political aspect in the application of strategic planning in education this is done to increase the number of community stakeholders involved in education (Bryson, 2017). In the business sector, strategic planning is a boardroom activity. In the education sector, however, it is a process that involves the community.

            Unlike in the past when policies regarding the education sector were made solely by the educators, strategic planning in the present involves the participation of the parents and other members of the community as well (Sá & Tamtik, 2012). This is due to the understanding that it is possible for the educator to be out of touch with the needs of the students and community, as they might be blinded by the idealist approach to education (Billingham, 2012). Leaders in the education sector have recognized that failure to consider the needs and opinions of the community can make the strategic plan fail (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). They, therefore, collaborate with the community in drawing up strategic plans for the school districts. The needs of schools districts differ depending on the prevailing demographics and the resources that are available to the communities. Hence, it is not possible to use the same script when implementing strategic plans in multiple areas.

 An education leader interested in becoming successful in strategic planning needs to consider three factors and apply them in strategic planning. The fast one is to ensure that the educators, community and all interested parties reach a consensus regarding what is contained in the strategic plan (Johnsen, 2015). With this in mind, it is advisable to have a reference document at hand, which is made available to all of the stakeholders (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). The second important consideration is to have the community engage early in the process of coming up with a strategic plan. This is done with the aim of gauging the insights and preferences of the community in time (Sá & Tamtik, 2012). A strategic plan that is supported by the community has a higher chance of success than one having limited input from the community (Bryson, 2017). The third key consideration is to be open minded and a collaborative leader as well. A collaborative education leader gains the support of the community, and his/her suggestions are well received. Investing in community support pays exponentially at the end (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012).

Key players in education strategic planning

            The key players in education strategic planning include the communities in the education districts, the parents, educators, and officials in the department of education. Coming up with strategic planning entails treating the views all these stakeholders with the same weight (Cook, 2012). The community is best placed identify the educational challenges facing them and make them known to education leaders. The educators are the ones acting as liaison between the community and the officials in the department of education (Maluma & Kovacevic, 2012). The parents have a direct stake in the strategic plan carried out by the educators, while the officials in the department of education are the ones that make approvals for the budget to be allocated to the education districts.

Conclusion

            In conclusion, strategic thinking and planning refer to the process of setting desired goals, deciding on the actions that are required to achieve them and mobilization of the resources that are needed to make those goals a reality. A strategic plan, in particular, describes how the objectives can be achieved making use of the resources available. The application of strategic planning in the education sector is different from doing the same in private businesses, as the community affected has to be included as well. The various key players in education strategic planning include the community, educators, and officials from the department of education.

References

Bianca, A. (2014). Why Is Strategic Thinking Important to the Success of Business?. Yourbusiness.azcentral.com. Retrieved 23 August 2017, from http://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/strategic-thinking-important-success-business-9612.html

Bowman, N. (2016). 4 Ways to Improve Your Strategic Thinking Skills. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved 23 August 2017, from https://hbr.org/2016/12/4-ways-to-improve-your-strategic-thinking-skills

Bryson, J. (2017). Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Cook, S. (2012). How to Do Your Own Personal Strategic Planning. Women In Higher Education, 21(1), 29-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/whe.10281

Ebersole, G. (2017). Strategic Thinking: 11 Critical Skills Needed. Cssp.com. Retrieved 23 August 2017, from http://www.cssp.com/CD0808b/CriticalStrategicThinkingSkills/

Hill, B. (2014). Why Is Strategic Thinking Important to the Success of Business?. Smallbusiness.chron.com. Retrieved 23 August 2017, from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/strategic-thinking-important-success-business-4661.html

Johnsen, Å. (2015). Strategic Management Thinking and Practice in the Public Sector: A Strategic Planning for All Seasons?. Financial Accountability & Management, 31(3), 243-268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/faam.12056

Maluma, M., & Kovacevic, S. (2012). Strategic Planning in Education – 3 Keys to Success. Thoughtexchange. Retrieved 23 August 2017, from https://www.thoughtexchange.com/strategic-planning-in-education-3-keys-to-success/

Sá, C., & Tamtik, M. (2012). Strategic planning for academic research. Higher Education Management And Policy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/hemp-24-5k9bdtj6b0r6

Santovec, M. (2014). Achieve greater career success with strategic planning. Disability Compliance For Higher Education, 20(5), 8-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dhe.30006

Verghese, T. (2017). The Importance of Strategic Thinking – Blog | Procurious. Procurious.com. Retrieved 23 August 2017, from https://www.procurious.com/procurement-news/importance-strategic-thinking