Sample Essay on Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
Nicotinamide Adenine DinucleotidPhosphate
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate is a coenzyme form of vitamin niacin. The enzyme also known as NADP is needed for many biochemical reactions to take place. Protein catalysts including trypsin and lysozyme catalyze different reactions by themselves. However, many other catalysts require metal ions as well as ribonucleic acid to carry out a reaction.
Niacin is a component of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate and NAD. These enzymes are very crucial in catabolism, and in the production of energy as well as biosynthesis of sugars and fats.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate is therefore very important and plays a crucial role in ensuring that biochemical reactions take place. Redox reactions for instance cannot take place without NADP. This is a reaction in which oxidoreductase enzymes transfer hydrogen.
Redox reaction is catalyzed by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate or the oxidoreducrase enzyme. During the process, two electrons and two hydrogens are removed from an ethanol molecule. A hydrogen atom and two electrons will then be transferred to generate an active NADP+.
Enzymes that require NADP to carry out different reactions
- Alcohol dehydrogenase requires NADP to metabolize alcohol
- Glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase needs NADP to catalyze an important step in glycolysis
- Lactate dehydrogenase also requires NADP to catalyze reactions in liver and muscle cells
- Pyruvate dehydrogenase needs NADP to catalyze any reaction connecting to glycolysis to the Krebs cycle
- a-keto-glutatarate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase also require NADP to catalyze oxidative phosphorylation reactions
- Hydroxyl-acyl-sCoA dehydrogenase needs NADP to catalyze oxidative phosphorylation reactions
- Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase is also needed to catalyze reactions in pentose phosphate pathway, in the
Calvin cycle and in fatty acid synthesis.
Additionally, biosynthetic and energy producing functions of Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase also come in handy. The enzyme act as an electron acceptor in oxidoreductase catalyzed reactions. It acts as an electron donor to ensure successful reactions in different cycles and metabolic processes.
Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase can also act as a side enzyme in different reactions. This depends on the side of NAD molecule that the enzyme acts on. For instance alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes an alcoholic reaction. NADP therefore acts as a side enzyme by ensuring sufficient transfer of hydrogen from ethanol and to the position that is required to produce quality alcohol.
Similarly, nicotinamide group can be used with dehydrogenase enzyme unexpectedly to complete a catalytic reaction. It is also important to note that NADP has a very distinctive signal in ultra-violet spectroscopy. The enzyme is used by scientists to monitor a wide range of enzyme catalyzed reactions.
Who established Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase?
Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase is an enzyme that has been proven to be very important in a wide range of metabolic reactions. This is an enzyme that was first established by Hans von Euler. He was the first to realize the structure of the enzyme. In 1929, Hans shared a Nobel Prize with Arthur Harden in medicine and in physiology for the discovery of the enzyme as well as NAD.
Later on, Euler proved that NAD contains two phosphate groups including one adenine, one nicotinamide unit and ribose sugar. These are important compounds that offer a positive charge on the enzyme and nitrogen atoms in different reactions.
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Sources
http://dehydrogenase.co.uk/NADP/
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Biological_Chemistry/Metabolism/Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/n0505?lang=en®ion=IN
- Published in Sample Papers Online, Writing Help
Sample Essay on Mark to Model
Mark to Model
Mark to model is one of the most popular accounting practices that have been used across the globe. It is a practice that involves sharing of assets based on a mathematical model as opposed to market price.
In many cases, the accounting model is used on assets whenever there is no active market. However, it is good to note that Level 3 assets are often valued depending on a financial model used in an economy. Therefore, mark to model is the opposite of mark to market model where asset values are recorded based on the last price recorded on public exchange.
Mark to model takes into consideration the payout for specific assets. It also takes into consideration the risks involved when trading in the assets as well as their expiration date. In addition, it has a wide array of inputs that are very subjective and have been often criticized for providing a value that is more of illusion than real value.
In mark to model, an insurer may provide a policy that covers oil refineries. Therefore, oil refiners will have to pay an insurer over a specified of time. The periodic payments will however be paid back by an insurer in the event of a major disaster. The contracts in mark to model may not be traded publicly as in the case of market to market.
Contracts in mark to model are also highly specialized. This means that it can be very hard to find the real value of assets. A model that will help traders to find the expected payout, probability of finding a market, premiums and the probability of a disaster will have to be created.
In the case of an insurance company, an insurer can report an asset or a liability in a balance sheet. An insurer will also have to record its real value based on mark to model rather than the asset’s real market value.
Why mark to model matters
Mark to model has been considered a risky method of finding the value of assets and liabilities by economists. It is even more risky if it is used to price assets that are traded in a liquid and the market is declining. This is based on the fact that the model is always subjective at an individual level.
Mark to model does not put into account the number of buyers and sellers in the market who are willing to value an asset. Individuals therefore, may not agree on the accuracy if the price of assets priced using mark to model method.
The system also matters bearing in mind that it was used during the credit crisis in late 2000s. Mortgages and securities lost a lot of their values within a very short time. Federal Accounting Standards Board suspended mark to market accounting in favor of the model only to provide way to financial institutions to put up a value for their mortgages.
With mark to model, financial institutions were also able to place a value on MBSs in an old and tumultuous market. The model is similarly used in private bond market whenever it goes liquid.
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Sources
http://www.wikinvest.com/wiki/Mark_to_model
http://www.investinganswers.com/financial-dictionary/financial-statement-analysis/mark-model-3738
- Published in Academic Writing, college papers
Where to Find a Reflection Paper Example
Where to Find a Reflection Paper Example
When asked to write a reflection paper for the first time, the first question that you might ask is most likely about where to find a reflection paper example. A reflection paper can be defined as a paper that gives you a chance to illustrate your comprehension of a given material and its effects on your ideas as well as possible future practice. While writing a reflection paper, you are allowed an opportunity to reinforce what you have learned through lecturers, personal experience and coursework. A reflection paper may focus on your personal experiences and feelings. However, it requires you to use concrete examples and multiple sources. Reflection papers are invaluable to students who engage in capstones or experiential classes which include internships because they enable them to synthesize theoretical knowledge via applied experience.
Importance of knowing where to find a reflection paper example
If you do not have a clue about how to write a reflection paper, a good reflection paper example will give you vital ideas on where to start the process of writing this paper. Even when you have ideas on how to write a reflection paper, a good reflection paper sample will give you fresh ideas. This makes approaching your reflection paper writing assignment easier. Generally, there are two major reasons why you need a sample reflection paper.
- To fine-tune ideas
While writing a reflection paper, you do not want to confine your writing to only what you know. A good reflection paper sample will enable you to fine-tune your current ideas so that you can present them in the most appropriate way and even get hints on new ways of presenting your ideas.
- Know how to format your reflection paper
Your instructor will give you different instructions on how to write your reflection paper. However, the instructor might or might not specify the style to adapt in your paper. The instructor can ask you to write the paper in APA, MLA, Harvard or Chicago style. A good sample written in a specified style will give you vital ideas on how to format your reflection paper.
When you know where you can find a good reflection paper sample, you do not have to worry or panic when asked to write this paper because you can always reach for a sample to act as your writing guide any time. You can also read the sample in advance especially if you are certain that your instructor will ask you to write one at some point.
Why use a reflection paper example?
Although writing a reflection paper may sound easy, it is not. While writing a reflection paper, you should stop, think and reflect about yourself. This paper gives you an opportunity to collect your thoughts before you write them and view things in an entirely new perspective. What you include in a reflection paper should come from your thoughts. The final reflection paper that you present should be based on your feelings and thoughts whose basis is your past life experiences, desires and beliefs.
When you know where to find a reflection paper example, you can reach for it while writing your paper for hints on the ideas, thoughts and information to include in your paper. Reading a good sample of a reflection paper will also enable you to generate ideas and organize them properly in your paper to ensure proper presentation. This is very important because the ability to write a good reflection paper depends on your ability to express your ideas, thoughts, experiences and desires in a way that opens your mind to an entirely new level.
Tips on where to find a reflection paper example
A good reflection paper sample should be based on the reflection of a particular event, a place or a person that has impacted on the life of the writer profoundly. Writing a reflection paper is more of writing a typical story and it usually leads to the establishment of important creative writing skills. However, when asked to write this paper for the first time you will find yourself struggling because you will not know which elements to put where. In that case, you should turn to the right places to look for a reflection paper example.
- Ask your teacher or professor to give you a reflection paper sample
If you do not know how to approach a reflection paper writing assignment or where to get a sample of a reflection paper, it is a good idea to ask your teacher or professor to give you a sample. You can visit the professor or teacher after the class or when you are sure that he/she is in the office to find out whether they can give you a reflection paper sample that you can review before you start writing your paper. There is a high chance that your teacher or professor has reflection paper samples written by former students. Once the professor or teacher gives you a sample, study it carefully to get insights on what the professor or teacher expects you to include in the paper. Pay close attention to the comments that the professor or teacher has included in the reflection paper sample.
- Ask a friend to give you a sample
You most probably know a friend whose papers are always excellent. You can seek assistance from such a friend. You might as well know a friend who is no longer at school but they scored high grades in academic papers. Ask them because they might have a sample that they keep at home. Such a friend can even tutor you on how to write a reflection paper as they give you the sample.
- Buy a reflection paper example online
There are companies that offer academic writing services online. If you are wondering about where to find a reflection paper example because your friends, teachers or professors do not have one, enlist the services of such companies. A reflection paper sample from a professional writing company is one of the best sample papers to use because it is written and edited by professionals. Therefore, order a reflection paper sample in advance so that you can use it as a guide for writing your reflection paper.
- Check the websites of professional writing companies
Several professional writing companies have websites where they post free academic paper samples. You can visit the blogs of such companies to find out whether they have a free sample reflection paper that you can use as your guide. You can find such a reflection paper example here.
- Check the websites of different colleges and universities
Some colleges and universities have websites where they post the best papers and essays written by their students. These are aimed at serving as samples to guide students when writing papers and essays in different disciplines. Visit the website of your college or university to find out if there is a reflection paper that you can use as your writing sample. If you cannot find a sample at the website of your college or university, check the websites of other learning institutions. Such a sample reflection paper can be found here.
How to use a reflection paper example
Now that you know where to find a reflection paper sample, it is important that you know how to use a sample reflection paper. Remember that you should use a reflection paper example just as the name suggests; as an example. You should not plagiarize the sample paper or part of it because that amounts to a serious offence for which you can be punished. As such, make sure that you only review the reflection paper example to get ideas for writing and formatting your paper then keep it away before you start writing your reflection paper. If you use ideas from the sample paper, make sure that your reflection paper has citations and footnotes that are properly referenced at the end of the paper.
It is also important that you use credible sources while writing your reflection paper. There are many books, academic journals and online sources where you can get information to guide you in writing your reflection paper. Make sure that you use and reference credible sources only. For your reflective paper to be credible, it should indicate that you consulted different sources including the internet, magazines and encyclopedias among others. After writing your paper, edit it properly, review the reflection paper sample and then reread your reflection paper to determine whether you have written it as the sample that you were using.
Get a unique reflection paper sample online now
You should use a unique reflection paper example from a credible source to come up with a great reflection paper. If you are having difficulties in identifying a place where to find a reflection paper example, get in touch with us right away. You can also visit our website’s home page for additional information about our academic writing services. Alternatively, continue reading for more guidelines on how to write a reflection paper as well as sample papers on our blog.
Sources
http://www.iirp.edu/pdf/IIRP-Reflection-Tip_Sheet.pdf
http://simmonsbiblecollege.com/is-it-possible-to-get-a-personal-reflective-essay-example.htm
http://www.klaceinstitute.com/finding-proper-reflection-paper-templates-effective-tips/
https://student.unsw.edu.au/examples-reflective-writing
- Published in Essay Writing Help, Homework Help, How to, paper writing service
Sample Essay on Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation refers to a metabolic pathway where cells’ mitochondria use their enzymes, structure and energy that is released by nutrients’ oxidation in reforming ATP. Oxidation phosphorylation is simplified as OXPHOS. Despite different life forms in the planet earth using different types of nutrients, ATP is the sole molecule that offers energy to the metabolism process. Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in almost every aerobic organism.
As a pathway, oxidative phosphorylation is perhaps, so pervasive since it allows for a highly efficient way via which energy is released as compared to the alternative processes of fermentation such as the anaerobic glycolysis. Electrons transfer takes place during the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
Electrons transfer occurs when electrons are moved from the electron donors to the electron acceptors such as redox reactions and oxygen. Redox reactions that take place during oxidative phosphorylation release energy. This energy is used in the formation of ATP. Redox reactions in the eukaryotes are performed by several protein complexes in the intermembrane wall mitochondria of the cell. In the prokaryotes, the proteins are situated in the inter-membrane space of the cells. The linked protein sets are known as the electron transport chains. In the eukaryotes, there are five major protein complexes that are involved. On the other hand, prokaryotes have various enzymes that use different electron donors as well as acceptors.
Energy that is released when the electrons flow via this process of electron transport chain is basically used in the transport of protons across inner membrane of mitochondria in a process known as the electron transport. This process also produces potential energy in pH gradient form. It also generates electrical potential across the membrane. This creates a store for energy that is tapped by letting proteins flow back across mitochondrial membrane downing this gradient via large enzyme known as ATP synthase. This process is called chemiosmosis.
The energy is used by the enzyme in generating ATP from the adenosine diphosphate in the phosphorylation reaction. Proton flow drives this reaction which in turn forces rotation forces of the part of enzyme. ATP synthase acts as the rotary mechanical motor of the process.
Despite being an important metabolism part, oxidative phosphorylation produces reactive species of oxygen including hydrogen peroxide and superoxide which then leads to the propagation of the free radicals which damage cells and facilitating diseases and senescence or aging. Many poisons and drugs that inhibit activities of the enzymes that carry out oxidative phosphorylation target them.
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Sources
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21208/
https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Oxidative_phosphorylation.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation
- Published in Essay Help, Paper Help, Research Paper Help
Sample Essay on Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide simply called NAD refers to a coenzyme that is found in every living cell. This compound is the dinucleotide and since it has two nucleotides that are joined via phosphate groups. One of the nucleotides has a nicotinamide and the other an adenine. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is usually found in two forms. These are the reduced form and in the oxidized forms abbreviated as NADH and NAD respectively.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is usually involved in the redox reactions in metabolism. It carries electrons across different reactions. Therefore, the coenzyme is found in two different forms in the living cells. These are the oxidizing agent NAD+ which accepts electrons from the other molecules becoming reduced. The reaction forms the NADH with is then possible to reduce as the reducing agent that donates electrons.
The electron transfer reactions are the major role of the NAD. Nevertheless, NAD is also used in cellular processes with enzyme substrate being the most notable that removes or add chemical groups from the proteins in the posttranslational modifications. Due to the crucial role of the functions of NAD, the enzymes that are involved in its metabolism are the targets of drug discovery.
In living organisms, synthesis of NAD can result from the simple building blocks the de novo. This is from amino acids aspartic acid and tryptophan. In the alternative fashion, complex components of coenzymes are usually taken up from the food in form of a vitamin known as niacin.
There are similar compounds that are released by the reactions that break NAD’s structure down. The preformed components pass via salvage pathway recycling them into an active form. There is also NAD that is converted to Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, simplified as NADP. Chemistry of the coenzyme is like that of the NAD. However, its roles in the metabolism process are different.
Despite NAD+ being written with the sign of superscript plus due to its formal charge in a certain nitrogen atom, for most part at the physiological pH is a singly-charged anion. The charge is that of minus 1. On the other hand, NADH is doubly-charged anion. For Haemophilus influenza growth, NAD is considered as the V factor. Just like other dinucleotides, Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide has the two nucleotides that are joined by phosphate groups as their bridge. They also have ribose rings with one having adenine that is attached to first atom of carbon while the other is with the nicotinamide.
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Sources
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/N/NAD.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Biological_Chemistry/Vitamins,_Cofactors_and_Coenzymes/Nicotinamide_Adenine_Dinucleotide
- Published in Academic Writing, college papers, Essay Help
Sample Essay on Multidrug Resistance Protein 3
Multidrug Resistance Protein 3
Multidrug resistance protein 3 is a protein belonging to the ABC subfamily C [ABCC]3) and it plays a significant role in the protection of hepatocytes as well as other tissues through extreation of different toxic organic conjugates of anion including the bile salts. Expression of multidrug resistance protein 3 or ABCC3 increases in a liver of individuals who are cholestatic but this molecular mechanism of the up-regulation stays elusive.
Basically, multidrug resistance protein 3 is a member of adenosine triphosphate binding cassette, the ABC transporter super-family. It expresses itself in different tissues including kidney, liver, adrenal gland, bladder and intestine of rodents and humans. Multidrug resistance protein 3 is localized in the basolateral membrane of the cells and it excretes sulfated, taurine-conjugated bile salts, glycine and bilirubin glucuronides, leukorienes, 17 x- glucuronosyl, and several drugs.
Hepatic multidrug resistance protein 3 expression under normal physiological circumstances is low. However, this expression is up-regulated significantly as adaptive and protective response when an individual is suffering from cholestasis. The up-regulation is also observed in the liver of a patient during the advance stages of primary biliary cirrhosis. It is also the case for parient with the extrahepatic cholestasis that is caused by pancreatic malignancy. However, it is not the case with patients in their early stages of progressive familial intra-hepatic cholestasis or PBC.
According to these revelations, it has been concluded that the distribution of multidrug resistance protein 3 and the basolateral position that it occupies in polarized cells suggests that the protein play an important role in metabolism when it comes to intestinal uptake of the organic anions as well as removal of the organic acids from liver cells and bile under cholestasic conditions.
The study revealed that multidrug resistance protein 3 up-regulation is high in the liver of the rats that were made cholestatic through litigation of the bile duct. It is also the case in the cholestatic liver of humans. Multidrug resistance protein 3 is also present in adrenal cortex in high levels. This has increased the possibility of multidrug resistance protein 3 being responsible for the secretion of certain hydrophilic steroid home derivatives including the dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate.
Despite being a member of the MRP subfamily that is involved in the development of multi-drug resistance, specific function of multidrug resistance protein 3 is yet to be determined. Nevertheless, it has been proven to play a significant role in the intestinal organic anions excretion and biliary transport.
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Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABCC3
http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=ML9yJfFIWn8C&pg=PA281&lpg=PA281&dq=Multidrug+resistance+protein+3&source=bl&ots=zXt32r1aQD&sig=enZaVUf9XnUVWgyoIM5mTreUGVg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=FxDEU4_LGdGyuASKqICABQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Multidrug%20resistance%20protein%203&f=false
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hep.24801/pdf
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005273699001674
- Published in college papers, Custom Writing, Essay Help
Sample Essay on Multidrug Resistance Associated Protein 1
Multidrug Resistance Associated Protein 1
Multidrug resistance associated protein 1refers to a protein that is encoded by ABCC1 gene in humans. The protein that is encoded by ABCC1 gene is part of the genes that belong to a super-family of the ATP-binding cassette or ABC transporters. ABC proteins are responsible for the transportation of different molecules across the intra and extra-cellular membranes.
There are seven divisions or distinct subfamilies of the ABC genes. These are the ABC1, MRP, MDR/TAP, OABP, ALD, GCN20 and White. Multidrug resistance associated protein 1is a full transporter belonging to the MRP subfamily that is involved in the multi-drug resistance activities. The function of this protein is to act as multi-specific organic anion transporter with the oxidized glutathione, activated aflatoxin B, and cysteinly leukotrienes as the substrates.
The protein is also responsible for transporting sulfate conjugates and glucuronides of the steroid hormones as well as bile salts. Different splice variants result from alternative splicing of the exon deletion but original reading of the open frame in all the forms is maintained.
Multidrug resistance associated protein 1is among the major obstacles when it comes to treatment of cancer. This is because it not only hinders treatment, but also proper prognosis of cancer patients. It transport different therapeutic agents and a wide range of physiological substances and it can also play a significant role in development of resistance to drug in different forms of cancer including prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and childhood neuroblastoma.
Many patients of neuroblastoma in the current world disseminated this disease during diagnosis. Despite undergoing intensive treatment, prognosis of such patients remains dismal. Evidence that shows that multidrug resistance associated protein 1targets the genes that are involved in multidrug resistance in the neuroblastoma is increasing rapidly. Considering the significance of multidrug resistance associated protein 1overexpression in the neuroblastoma, its inhibition can be an important approach clinically in improving the patient outcome in the disease.
Developing a resistance to different cytotoxic drugs is the main cause of failure for treatment in different types of infections and malignant diseases. Thu, despite making significant advancement in the treatment of cancer, multidrug resistance associated protein 1is still a major problem in the medical or clinical field.
It causes poor outcome for patients and limitation of therapeutic options in different cancers. As such, having a better understanding of mechanisms leading to multidrug resistance associated protein 1is very important. It can help in improving the existing regime of chemotherapy in treatment of cancer and neuroblastoma.
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Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABCC1
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/15216540701736285/pdf
http://www.cancerci.com/content/5/1/22
- Published in Research Paper Help, Sample Papers Online, Writing Help
Sample Essay on Electron Transport Chain
Electron Transport Chain
Electron transport chain refers to several compounds that are responsible for transferring electrns from the electron donors to the electron acceptors through redox reactions while coupling the electron transfer process with protons (H+ ions) transfer across the membrane. This results in the creation of the electrochemical proton gradient responsible for driving synthesis of ATP or chemical energy generation in form of ATP or adenosine triphosphate.
The electron transport chain is used in energy extraction through redox reactions during photosynthesis from the sun or such as the case of sugars’ oxidation, cellular respiration. In inner mitochondrial membrane in the eukaryotes, there is a crucial electron transport chain that serves as the main oxidative phosphorylation site via the use of the adenosine triphosphate synthesis. Thylakoid membrane of chloroplast in the photosynthetic eukaryotes also has an electron transport chain. Electron transport chain is also found in the cell membrane of bacteria.
Light drives water conversion into NADP+ and oxygen to NADPH with H+ ions being transferred across the chloroplast membranes in the chloroplast. Oxygen conversion into water, NADH to the NAD+ and a succinate to fumerate required for the generation of proton gradient takes place in mitochondria. Electron transport chain is a major site where leakage of premature electron to oxygen and generation of superoxide with potential result of an increase in oxidative stress occurs.
Catabolic processes have FADH2 and NADH as their byproducts. These are in reduced forms. FADH2 and NADH are used by metabolic processes in transporting electrons in form of the hydride ions (H–). The electrons are then passed from FADH2 or NADH to electron carriers that are membrane bound which then passes on to the other carriers until when they are delivered to oxygen which result in water production.
During the process of passing electrons from one carrier to the other, hydrogen ions transfer also takes place in the inter-membrane spaces at the three points in electron transport chain. Hydrogen ions transportation results in greater hydrogen concentration in inter-membrane spaces than in matrix that can be used in driving ATP synthase and production of ATP which is a high energy molecule.
Energy that is obtained via electrons transfer is used in pumping protons from the matrix of the mitochondria into inter-membrane space which creates the electrochemical proton gradient found across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. The electrochemical proton gradient enhances ATP synthase to use H+ flow via enzyme back to the matrix generating ATP from the adenosine diphosphate and the inorganic phosphate.
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Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-respiration/v/electron-transport-chain
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Biological_Chemistry/Metabolism/Electron_Transport_Chain
- Published in Essay Help, Homework Help, Research Paper Help
Sample Essay on Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein 2
Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein 2
Multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 [MRP2] or ATP-binding cassette sub-family C members 2 is a protein that in humans is programmed by the ABCC2 gene. The MRP2 is a known member of the ATP-binding cassette [ABC] transporters. ABC transporters are members of protein superfamily that is one of the largest and oldest in the families with members from extant phyla from prokaryotes to human beings. The term multidrug resistance has been used to elaborate the mechanism of resistance that cells [Eukaryotic and prokaryotic] have in response to the many chemotherapeutic drugs.
ABC proteins transport various molecules across extra and intra-cellular membranes. ABC genes are divided into seven unique subfamilies that include ABC1, MDR, TAP, MRP, GCN20, OABP and White. The ABC protein is a member of the MRP subfamily which is involved in multi-drug resistance. The protein is also exceptionally exhibited in the canalicular [apical] section of the hepatocyte and aids in biliary transport. The known substrate include anticancer drugs such as vinblastine. Thus, the multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 [MRP2] appears to contribute to drug resistance in mammalian cells.
Multidrug resistance-associated protein was incorporated into the drug resistance scene in 1992 when Susan Cole and Rodger Deeley cloned the Multidrug resistance-associated protein gene, the MRP1. The Multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 [MRP2] followed in 1996 and more MRP members followed. The MRP2 was characterized as the canalicular multispecific organic anion transporter [cMOAT] from its cloning. Homology is also high in MRP2 as it is in the Multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 [MRP1] 3 and 6. On top of this, these MRPs also share the characteristics of TMD0L0 segment. They are also seen in glutathione-drug conjugate [GS-X] and aid pump from eukaryotes like leishmania and yeast.
Within the ABC transporters in mammalians, the MRPs form a group that is clearly defined from the other known groups. MRP2 are able to transport methotrexate. MRP1,4 AND 5 RNAs are widely spread in the body while for MRP2, 3 and 6 mainly appear to function in kidney, liver and gut. While gathering more information on Multidrug resistance-associated proteins, there are a few problems encounter in the study. For instance;
- The MRPs are characterized and so they are organic anion transporters. Most of the substrates for these transporters are extremely charged and do not penetrate the cell membrane.
- Antibodies that work against MRP are often cross-react with another member of multidrug resistance-associated protein family. This issue can be solved by generating monoclonal antibodies against the non-conserved parts of the MRP family.
- The body cells chosen for drug resistance often overexpress multiple transporter genes. The use of certain inhibitors or transfected cells has helped solve this problem.
- It is challenging to get the multidrug resistance-associated protein transfectants giving high expression and products channeled to cell membrane. Most of the cells contain organic anion and this result to background transport activity.
Multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 is helpful in protection against exogenous toxic compounds. The presence of many ABC transporters available offer defense against toxic compounds. The discovery of MRP family has improved the study of MDR in tumor cells and led into interest in the functions of the MRP family members in normal metabolism.
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References
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005273699001674
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidrug_resistance-associated_protein_2
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08235.x/full
- Published in college papers, Custom Writing, Essay Help
Sample Essay on Le Chatelier’s Principle
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Chemistry is one the widely pursued scientific field. There are thousands of principles or laws that are used to explain many chemistry laws or theorems. The Le Chatelier’s principle also known as the Chatelier’s principle or the equilibrium law is a principle used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on a chemical equilibrium. It is a reputed principle named after Henry Louis Le Chatelier and sometimes Karl Ferdinand Braun who discovered the law individually.
Le Chatelier’s principle is easy to comprehend. Interestingly, it states that; when a system at the equilibrium is subjected to change in concentration, volume, temperature or pressure, then the equilibrium readjusts itself to counteract the effect of the applied change and a new equilibrium is established. In 1884 the French chemist and engineer henry Louis Le Chatelier proposed one of the core concepts of chemical equilibrium which explains what takes place to a system when something briefly removes it from a state of equilibrium.
It is essential to comprehend that the Le Chatelier principle is only an important guide when identifying what happens when the conditions are altered in a reaction in a dynamic equilibrium and it does not give reasons for the changes at the molecular level. There are numerous areas to look at and comprehend how the Le Chatelier’s Principle works.
- Effect on change in concentration- Changing the concentration of a chemical will shift the equilibrium to the side that will lead to a reduction in the change in concentration. The chemical system of choice will tend to partially oppose the change affected to the original state of equilibrium. On top of this, the rate of reaction, magnitude and the yield of the chemical products will be changed in response to the impact on the system.
- Impact of the change in temperature- The effect of charging temperature in the equilibrium can be made apparent by, incorporating heat as either a product or a reactant or by assuming that an increase in temperature will increase the temperature the heat content of system. Whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or reverse reaction. Hence, all can be determined by applying Le Chatelier’s theorem.
- Effect of the change in pressure- Changes in pressure can lead to changes in volume. Notably, the equilibrium concentrations of the product and reactants do not directly depend on the pressure that is exposed to the system. Change in pressure due to change in volume will shift the chemical equilibrium.
- Effects of a catalyst- A catalyst has no influence on the equilibrium, but it spends upwards and backwards reactions and equally.
- Impact of adding an inert gas- an inert gas or noble gas like helium is one that does not react with other elements. Adding a noble gas into gas-phase equilibrium at constant volume does not result in a shift. An addition of a non-reactive gas does not impact partial pressures of the other gas in the container.
The Le Chatelier’s principle has unmatched influence not only in chemistry, but also in economics. A similar concept was also introduced in economics by U.S economist Paul Samuelson in 1947. The principle is generalized to apply in maximum condition of economic equilibrium. Factor-demand and commodity supply elasticity’s are theorized to be lower in short term but not on long term basis because of the fixed-cost constraint in the short run.
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Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Chatelier’s_principle
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch16/lechat.html
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Equilibria/Le_Chatelier’s_Principle
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Sample Essay on Hardy–Weinberg Principle
Hardy–Weinberg Principle
Hardy–Weinberg Principle or the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium model or law states that the allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of any other evolutionary factors. These influences or impacts include mutation, mate choice, selection, genetic drift, meiotic drive and gene flow. The Hardy–Weinberg equation is a unique mathematical calculation that can be used to evaluate the genetic variation of a population at the equilibrium.
In 1908, G. H. Hardy, an English mathematician and Wilhelm Weinberg, a German physician independently described a basic principle effective in population genetics widely known as the Hardy-Weinberg principle. The principle is crucial concept in population genetics and it helps predict how gene frequencies will inherited from one generation to another within a given set of assumptions.
The Hardy–Weinberg principle is clear in the sense that, it clarifies that a large randomly breeding population allele frequencies will remain the same from generation to generation considering that there is no gene migration, mutation or genetic drift influences. This principle is imperative because it gives biologist a standard from which to measure changes in allele frequency in a population.
In order to make any helpful assumptions on the Hardy–Weinberg principle, it is wise to reorganize that it is a neutral equilibrium meaning that a population disturbed from its Hardy–Weinberg genotype frequencies will have to reach equilibrium after a single generation of random mating; however, it will be a new equilibrium if allele frequencies are altered. This characteristic helps distinguish a neutral equilibrium from a stable equilibrium in which a disrupted system returns to the same equilibrium state. There are certain occurrences when the Hardy–Weinberg principle or law fails to apply. This effect can be attributed to a number of factors and they include;
- Mutation- Here, the frequency of the gene B and its allele b will not remain in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium if the rate if mutation of B -> b changes.
- Gene flow- Many species are made up of local populations whose members breed within the group. Each of these local populations can develop a gene pool unique from that of the other local population. On the other hand, some members of one of the population may breed with occasional immigrants from adjacent population of the same species. This leads to a new flow of genes frequencies in the populations.
- Genetic drift- Interbreeding is usually limited to the members of the residents. If the population is small, Hardy–Weinberg principle may be disturbed. This may eliminate certain number of the populace. Then frequency of an allele may begin to drift towards higher or lower values. Genetic drift will lead to evolutionary change, but it is not adaptive.
- Other issues that will make the Hardy–Weinberg law fail are nonrandom mating and natural selection.
The above-mentioned factors affect changes in allele frequencies and when subjected to more forces, the population of choice will disrupt the Hardy–Weinberg assumptions and evolution will take place. The Hardy–Weinberg principle thus constitutes a null model for the field of population genetics and it is helpful to the study of evolution.
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References
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-hardy-weinberg-principle-13235724
http://www.nfstc.org/pdi/Subject07/pdi_s07_m01_02.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardy%E2%80%93Weinberg_principle
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Sample Essay on Genotype Frequency
Genotype Frequency
The genotype is the genetic character of a cell, organism or an individual and it is referenced with certain characteristics being considered. The genotype of an organism is usually the inherited instructions that it carries within its genetic code. Genetic variation in populations can be analyzed and quantified by the frequency of alleles [same genes or same genetic locus]. Population genetics is determined by two great and imperative calculations and these are the genotype frequencies and allele frequencies. Genotype frequency in a population is the number of individuals with a given genotype that is divided by the total number of individuals in the population.
Genotype frequency is the proportion of the genotypes in a population. Although the allele and genotype proportions relate, there are differences to hold in your fingertips especially if conducting research on genetic variation in populations. Genotype frequency has also been effective and it guarantees a bright future when it comes to genomic profiling and making it easy to predict someone is having a disease or a birth disorder. Testing of different gene variants for prediction of diseases such as Type 2 diabetes or coronary heart disease will become easier. More so, genotype frequency can also aid in determining ethnic diversity.
Genotyping is the process of revealing the genotype an individual with a biological assay. The techniques involved include Polymerase chain reaction [PCR], DNA fragment analysis, allele specific oligonucleotide , DNA sequencing, nucleic acid hybridization and DNA microarrays or beads. DNA fragment analysis is a technique that can be used to ascertain certain disease causing genetic abnormalities such as microsatellite instability [MSI], aneuploidy, or loss of heterozygosity [LOH].
When determining genotype or allele frequency, keep in mind that the sum is always less than or equal to one [it is less than or equal to 100%]. The Hardy-Weinberg principle or law is useful in describing the relationship between genotype frequencies and allele frequencies especially when a population is not evolving. There are several factors 
that are known to affect genotype frequency and they include;
- Selective sexual selection- There are certain genotypes and phenotypes that get choose by mates. The alleles of the chosen mates increase in frequency while the alleles that are not chosen will decrease.
- Differential migration- Here if a certain phenotype moves out of an area, the frequency of those alleles will decrease while those that stay in a chosen area will increase.
- Assortative mating- This is a kind of mating that affects genotype frequencies expected under the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This is because when an individual mate favorably with other individuals that are phenotypically similar, this leads to an overabundance of homozygous individuals occurs since similar phenotypes are likely to share akin genotypes. When mating of similar phenotypes takes place more frequently than random mating, the possibility of offspring receiving two copies of an identical allele increase perturbing the Hardy-Weinberg outlooks.
- Natural selection- certain phenotypes survive and those alleles increase in frequency whereas the alleles of the unsuccessful ones decrease.
- Isolation [Founder effect] – This is a form of genetic drift that affects genotype frequency. Here, if a small group of individuals is separated from main group, they may have a different frequency of alleles in the gene group. As population grows, these frequencies may differ from the main group.
Genotype frequencies and gene frequency are related variables and thus affected by similar factors. Besides the aforementioned factors affecting genotype frequencies, mutation and random genetic drift are the other notable factors. Genotype frequencies are easy to measure and the simplest case is working on a case where you have one genetic locus with two alleles and three genotypes. To learn more on representations of the genotype frequencies, the De Finetti diagram can aid as it is useful in population genetics presentations.
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Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotype_frequency
http://www2.fiu.edu/~rjgarcia/Ch20_answers.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotype
- Published in college papers, Custom Writing
Sample Essay on ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter
ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter
Transport of specific molecules across the lipid membranes is quite essential when it comes to living organisms. There are numerous transporters that have evolved to carry out most of these functions. ATP-binding cassette transporter [ABC] is the largest transporter gene family that aids perform some of the crucial function in living organisms. ABC transporters are the core members of a protein superfamily made up of one of the largest and oldest families with representatives in extant phyla from prokaryotes to humans.
ATP-binding cassette transporter [ABC transporters] are transmembrane proteins that utilize the energy of the ATP [adenosine triphosphate] binding and hydrolysis to carry out biological processes. These processes include translocation of various substrates across membranes and non-transport-related process such as the translation of DNA and RNA repair. The proteins aid translocate a wide variety of substances that may include sugars, metal ions, amino acids, proteins and peptides and large amounts of hydrophobic compounds.
The ABC transporters genes are quite vital for many processes in the cell and mutation of these genes is harmful. Mutation of the responsible genes can cause or contribute to several human genetic complications that include cystic fibrosis, neurological disease cholesterol and bile transport defects, anemia and drug response. The ABC transporters make use of energy of ATP binding and hydrolysis to transport numerous substrates across the cellular membranes.
These transporters are divided into three main functional categories. The prokaryotes, the importers mediate the uptake of nutrients into the cells while the substrates can be transported into amino acids, sugars, peptides and hydrophilic molecules. For the eukaryotes, they do not possess any importers. The exporters or effluxers which are both present in eukaryotes and prokaryotes aid as pumps that push out toxins and drugs available in the cells of living organisms. In the case of gram-negative bacteria, the exporters help transport lipids and polysaccharides from the cytoplasm to the periplasm.
Understanding the mechanism of ATP-binding cassette transporter makes it easy to comprehend how these active transporters can be aid the human cells. These active transporters require energy in the form of ATP to translocate substrates across the cell membranes. These proteins are able to harness the energy of ATP binding or for hydrolysis to drive conformational changes in the transmembrane domain and effectively transport molecules. Alternating-access model is the mechanism that described the conformational changes associated with binding of substrate.
The general mechanism for the transport cycle of the ABC transporters has been fully interpreted. However, the biochemical and structural data has accumulated to support a model through which ATP binding and hydrolysis has been made possible. ATP-binding cassette transporters also aid in the development of multidrug resistance [MDR]. In the MDR, patients who are on medication develop resistance not only to the drug that they are taking but also to several different types of drugs.
Excretion of the drug from the cell b ABC transporters is one of the factors that cause this resistance. Unfortunately, it is not clear how these proteins can translocate many drugs in the cell. ABC transporters are also expressed in the membranes of healthy cells, where they can easily facilitate the transport of numerous endogenous substances as well as substances remote to the body. ABC transporter interactions can be detected through assay types and they are membrane assays and whole based cells allays.
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Refernces
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP-binding_cassette_transporter
http://www.jlr.org/content/42/7/1007.full
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP-binding_cassette_family
- Published in Essay Help, Homework Help
Body Paragraph Examples
Body Paragraph Examples
Professionally crafted body paragraph examples are among the best reference materials that are recommended for writing academic papers. In fact, all academic papers including essays, research papers, dissertations, reports among others require you to write strong body paragraphs for the best results. This implies you should know how to select the best body paragraph samples and also where to easily get well written ones. Read on for insights on how to accomplish all these.
Body paragraphs contribute the greatest percentage in an academic papers since they present the discussion of your main points. Therefore, it is very important that you know how to always deliver assignments as well as term papers with logical and compelling arguments. The best way to achieving this is by choosing the best body paragraph examples to refer to.
When you know where to find top notch body paragraph examples with ease, getting the right examples for reference will not be a problem. Besides, it will also save you time that would have been spent searching for samples to use when writing body paragraphs. In fact, you will also not spend a lot of time on research and other related processes since the examples contain several ideas on how to develop strong body paragraphs.
Tips for choosing body paragraph examples
Finding body paragraph examples to refer to when writing assignments and term papers may seem easy to many students. However, you should not just rush into using a particular sample for writing your paper without making sure that it is the right one. The following tips will assist you in choosing the best examples of body paragraphs to use when writing.
Consider the authenticity of the sources
When looking for sample body paragraphs to refer to, it is recommended that you always go for those that are offered by reliable sources. Obtaining sample papers from acknowledged sources is one the best ways of getting high quality examples.
Authentic sources are those with proper references such as website links, which you can easily provide when asked. Besides, it is also required that you provide your sources when writing academic papers, thus, always check the authenticity of the source before using any example.
Know the type of paper that you will be writing
There are various kinds of academic papers that you can be asked to write for example essays, research papers among others. Although there is a general writing format for all academic papers, there are slight differences based on the specific one that you are working on.
In order to have an easy time in writing, always go for examples of body paragraphs for a similar paper to yours. For example, if you are writing an essay paper, do not use research paper body paragraph samples, instead, go for sample of essay body paragraphs.
Narrow down to the subject of your paper
Examples of body paragraphs can offer you lots of ideas on how to craft this section of your paper. In order to acquire relevant ideas, find samples of body paragraphs for papers that are based on the same subject as yours. In this way, you will not be pressed with a lot of research for the body paragraphs of your paper.
Check the style of writing
There are various kinds of formats for writing academic papers including APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard among others. In the assignment sheet, you will be instructed on the particular style to use in writing the paper, which will apply to the body paragraphs and other sections. Therefore, you should always know the particular style for your paper and find an example that is written in the same format to use.
Look into punctuation, grammar, flow of ideas
Although many students ignore checking grammatical and punctuation mistakes, it is very important if you want to deliver a paper with flawless paragraphs. A good paragraph should be free from such mistakes and present a logical discussion with well explained points or ideas. Using examples with even simple mistakes like spelling errors can be misleading and badly taint your final paper, so be very keen when selecting the samples.
The organization of the body paragraphs is also another element that you should look into. An ideal body paragraph should be organized in a way such that, readers can easily identify the topic sentence or main point, evidence or example and also how the writer has presented his ideas.
When choosing examples of body paragraphs online, it is also important that you take time to read and understand the terms of using the samples.
Where to find top notch Body Paragraph Examples
Both online and offline sources can be used whenever you are looking for body paragraph examples. However, not all those sources can always offer the best samples of body paragraphs. The following are suggestions on some of the best sources that you can check out for high quality examples of body paragraphs for academic papers.
School Writing Centers
To help students write good assignments and term papers, many learning institutions including high schools, colleges and universities have writing centers. Quite a number of school writing centers provide their resources online, which means you can easily access them at any time and from wherever you are.
You do not have to only use examples from your school’s writing center but also others in order to get adequate information. Aims is one of the good online school writing centers you can visit for examples of body paragraphs to refer to. Besides, the site also offers tips on how to write body paragraphs as well as those for other sections of academic papers.
Academic paper writing services
Professional academic writing services are also among the best sources of body paragraph samples. The services are offered by experienced individuals with expertise in various areas and can always enable you to get the right examples to refer to. The best thing about academic writing service providers is that they can always create custom examples for you based on the given instructions.
There are various academic writers that you can obtain body paragraph samples from, but always go for one that is reliable and has a reputation of offering high quality papers and services. Custom Writing Service is one of the best service providers that you can contact for top notch examples and professional academic paper writing help.
Academic Blogs
There are also blogs and websites run by experts in various areas of academics that you can obtain examples of body paragraphs from. Since there are a number of them over the internet, choosing the best one to acquire samples from can be a bit tricky. However, you should always try to get samples from renowned academic blogs.
The Writing Café is an online platform that you can also visit for body paragraph samples and proper guidelines on how to develop good body paragraphs for academic papers.
Although both offline and online sources are recommended when looking for examples of body paragraphs, the internet is always the most idea considering its convenience and reliability. But this should not hinder you from visiting the library since it is also another good source of sample papers.
Examples of Body Paragraphs for Academic Papers
By reading well written body paragraph examples, you will be able to effectively know how a good sample should look. In this way, you can always easily choose the right example to use when writing a paper. The following are some examples of body paragraphs that you should read for illustrations on how body paragraphs should be developed.
Example 1
Sample Body Paragraph
‘’While there is little doubt that extracurricular opportunities at University of Texas are a positive and critical component of students’ overall development, providing students with time management skills is equally important. One only needs to look past alumni to see the validity of this claim. As famous alum George W. Bush states…’’ Continue reading the sample here.
Example 2
Sample Body Paragraph
‘’Students who learn how to write well will earn better grades in most classes. This is true because most instructors assign a variety of written assignments, and depending on the class, these written assignments often encompass a large percentage of a student’s final grade. For instance, all college students seeking a degree will be required to take a composition class…’’ Read the other parts of the sample on this link.
Example 3
Sample Body Paragraph
‘’Perhaps the cheapest and most efficient security method is a so-called Safe Traveler Card or national ID card. A Safe Traveler Card or national ID card would be about the size of a credit card, contain a computer chip, and cost little to produce. In some ways, these cards are like the E.Z Pass devices that enable people to drive on highways, bridges, and tunnels without having to stop and pay tolls (Dershowitz 590)…’’ Click here to read the rest of the sample body paragraph.
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References
http://www.aims.edu/student/online-writing-lab/process/body-exercise
http://www.customwritingservice.org/blog
http://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/Strong%20Body%20Paragraphs.pdf
http://content.easybib.com/students/writing-guide/iv-write/e-body-paragraphs/
- Published in Essay Help, How to, Paper Help
Sample Essay on Tumor Suppressor Gene
Tumor Suppressor Gene
Tumor suppressor gene is also called antioncogene. It refers to a gene that offers protection to a cell from a single step on cancer’s path. If tumor suppressor gene mutates casing a reduction or loss in its role or function, this can cause the cell to progress into cancer. Usually, this occurs in combination with various genetic changes.
Losing these genes can even be important that oncogene or proto-oncogene activation for formation of different types of cancer cells in humans. Tumor suppressor genes may be grouped in different categories including gatekeeper genes, landscaper genes and caretaker genes. This classification changes as the fields of learning such as genetics, epigenetic, molecular biology and medicine advances.
Compared to oncogenes, the tumor suppressor gene generally follow two-hit hypothesis. This means that the alleles coding for particular protein has to be affected prior the manifestation of an effect. This is due to the fact that if one allele of the gene sustains some damage, the second allele will still produce correct protein. Thus, alleles that suppress mutant tumor are recessive while alleles for mutant oncogene are dominant.
A.G Knudson proposed the two-hit hypothesis for the first time for retinoblastoma cases. Knudson observed the age of the onset of the retinoblastoma and this was followed by the second order kinetics. This implied that it was important to have two genetic events that were independent.
Knudson recognized that two hit hypothesis was consistent with the recessive mutation that involved single gene. However, it required biallelic mutation. In contrast, oncogene mutations generally involve single allele since they are considered as gain-of-function mutations.
When it comes to two-hit rule, tumor suppressor gene has exceptions such as specific mutations in p53 gene product. The p53 mutations are capable of functioning as dominant negative. This implies that mutated p53 protein is capable of preventing function of a normal protein from un-mutated allele. Other tumor suppressors that are considered as exceptions to two hit rule include those exhibiting haploinsufficiency such as NF in neurofibroma and PTCH in the medulloblastoma.
More precisely, tumor suppressor genes code for proteins that either have repressive or dampening effect on regulation of cell cycle or even they promote apoptosis in some cases or they can do both. Functions of the proteins of tumor suppressor genes are usually classified into various categories. These include genes repression, coupling, and initiating apoptosis when damage is irreparable, cell adhesion which prevents dispersing of tumor cells, and DNA repair.
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Sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/TumorSuppressorGenes.html
http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/Factsheet/Genetics/fs6.TSgenes.cfm
- Published in Essay Writing Help, paper writing service